Characteristics of depression | AQA A-Level Psychology Revision
Updated: Sep 9
For 7182 specification, first teach in September 2025
AQA A-Level Psychology | Free Revision Notes
Estimated study time: 40 minutes
These Characteristics of depression A-Level Psychology revision notes explain how depression may affect behaviour, emotions and cognition. Behavioural characteristics include changes in activity, sleep and eating, as well as aggression or self-harm. Emotional characteristics include lowered mood, anger and reduced self-esteem. Cognitive characteristics include poor concentration, dwelling on negative experiences and absolutist thinking. You will learn to distinguish these categories and apply accurate psychological terminology to unfamiliar scenarios, as required by the AQA specification.
Learning Objectives 🎯
By the end of this revision page, you should be able to:
Describe the behavioural characteristics of depression.
Describe the emotional characteristics of depression.
Describe the cognitive characteristics of depression.
Distinguish actions, emotions and thought processes.
Identify characteristics of depression in unfamiliar scenarios.
Apply appropriate psychological terminology to behavioural evidence.
Revision Notes đź“š
Characteristics of depression A-Level Psychology revision overview
Depression is associated with changes in how a person:
Behaves.
Feels.
Thinks.
Responds to other people.
Completes everyday activities.
The characteristics are divided into three categories:
Category | Central question |
Behavioural characteristics | What does the person do? |
Emotional characteristics | What does the person feel? |
Cognitive characteristics | What does the person think, believe or focus on? |
The categories are connected, but they should be distinguished carefully in an examination.
For example:
Staying in bed for most of the day is behavioural.
Experiencing persistent sadness is emotional.
Believing that nothing will ever improve is cognitive.
Characteristics are not explanations
A characteristic describes what depression looks or feels like.
An explanation attempts to account for why depression develops.
For example:
Dwelling on negative experiences is a cognitive characteristic.
A negative schema is part of Beck’s account of negative thinking.
Irrational beliefs are included in Ellis’s account of depression.
When a question asks for characteristics, do not replace your answer with a description of Beck’s negative triad or Ellis’s ABC model.
Characteristics are not treatments
A treatment explains how psychological difficulties may be reduced.
For example, challenging irrational thoughts in treatment is not a characteristic of depression.
In an examination, check whether the question asks you to:
Describe characteristics.
Explain depression.
Describe treatment.
Apply knowledge to a scenario.
These tasks require different content.
Behavioural characteristics of depression
Behavioural characteristics are actions or observable changes in behaviour.
The main behavioural characteristics are:
Changes in activity levels.
Disruption to sleep and eating behaviour.
Aggression and self-harm.
Changes in activity levels
Depression may be associated with either reduced or increased activity.
A person’s behaviour may be noticeably different from their usual level of functioning.
Reduced activity
Many people experiencing depression show lower levels of activity.
They may:
Stop participating in activities.
Remain in bed for long periods.
Move or speak more slowly.
Neglect ordinary responsibilities.
Withdraw from friends or family.
Stop attending school, college or work.
Find it difficult to begin tasks.
Abandon activities they previously completed regularly.
Reduced activity may affect basic tasks such as:
Washing.
Dressing.
Preparing food.
Leaving the house.
Replying to messages.
Attending appointments.
The person may understand what needs to be done but feel unable to begin or complete it.
Reduced motivation and activity
Reduced activity is often connected with a lack of motivation.
For example, a student may:
Know that an assignment is due.
Intend to begin it.
Remain unable to start.
Withdraw further as unfinished work accumulates.
The behavioural characteristic is the reduced activity or failure to begin the task.
Thoughts such as “there is no point trying” are cognitive.
Feelings of sadness or worthlessness are emotional.
Social withdrawal
Social withdrawal means reducing or ending contact with other people.
A person may:
Decline invitations.
Stop meeting friends.
Avoid conversations.
Spend increasing amounts of time alone.
Stop participating in family activities.
Ignore messages or telephone calls.
Social withdrawal is behavioural because it concerns what the person does.
It may be influenced by emotional or cognitive characteristics, such as:
Low mood.
Low self-esteem.
The belief that others do not want their company.
Example of reduced activity
Before experiencing depression, Lara attended college every day, played sport twice a week and regularly met friends.
She now spends most of the day in bed, has stopped attending training and rarely leaves the house.
Lara demonstrates reduced activity because her level of participation has fallen substantially.
She also displays social withdrawal because she no longer meets friends.
Increased activity
Depression does not always involve slowed or reduced activity.
Some people experience psychomotor agitation, meaning increased restlessness or agitated movement.
They may:
Pace repeatedly.
Fidget.
Be unable to sit still.
Move their hands constantly.
Begin and abandon several activities.
Appear physically restless.
Become unusually agitated.
The increased movement does not necessarily mean that the person feels energetic or positive.
It may reflect distress, tension or difficulty settling.
Reduced activity compared with agitation
Reduced activity | Psychomotor agitation |
Moving or speaking slowly | Restless or repetitive movement |
Remaining inactive | Difficulty remaining still |
Struggling to begin tasks | Pacing or fidgeting |
Withdrawing from activities | Agitated, unsettled behaviour |
Appearing slowed down | Appearing physically restless |
Both patterns involve a change from the person’s usual activity level.
Example of increased activity
Amir walks repeatedly around the same room, constantly moves his hands and says that he cannot sit still.
These observable actions may represent increased activity or psychomotor agitation.
Disruption to sleep
Depression may disrupt a person’s usual pattern of sleep.
The individual may sleep:
Much less than usual.
Much more than usual.
At unusual times.
Irregularly.
Reduced sleep
A person may:
Have difficulty falling asleep.
Wake repeatedly during the night.
Wake much earlier than intended.
Feel unable to return to sleep.
These changes may contribute to:
Tiredness.
Difficulty concentrating.
Reduced activity.
Irritability.
Increased sleep
Another person may sleep for much longer than usual.
They may:
Remain in bed throughout the day.
Sleep after completing very little activity.
Find it extremely difficult to get up.
Miss school, work or appointments because they are asleep.
Sleep as a behavioural characteristic
Sleep is included within the behavioural category because it concerns a change in the person’s pattern of activity.
The resulting tiredness or difficulty concentrating may contribute to other characteristics, but the disrupted sleep itself is behavioural.
Example
Freya previously slept for around eight hours each night.
She now stays awake for most of the night and then sleeps throughout the afternoon, causing her to miss lessons.
This illustrates disruption to sleep.
It also affects whether she can manage ordinary daily demands.
Disruption to eating behaviour
Depression may also change eating behaviour.
A person may:
Eat much less than usual.
Lose interest in preparing food.
Skip meals.
Eat considerably more than usual.
Snack repeatedly.
Experience a noticeable change in appetite.
The direction of change differs between individuals.
Depression does not always cause reduced eating.
Reduced eating
A person may:
Report having little appetite.
Leave meals unfinished.
Stop shopping for food.
Lack the motivation to prepare meals.
Increased eating
Another person may:
Eat more frequently.
Use eating as a response to distress.
Experience strong changes in appetite.
Continue eating despite not feeling physically hungry.
Example
Callum previously prepared regular meals.
He now eats very little, often forgets meals and says that preparing food feels like too much effort.
The disrupted eating pattern is behavioural.
His thought that preparing food is impossible would be cognitive if it reflects an underlying belief.
Aggression
What is aggression?
Aggression is behaviour intended to cause harm or express hostility.
In depression, aggression may be directed:
Towards other people.
Towards objects.
Towards the self.
Examples of outward aggression may include:
Shouting.
Arguing.
Damaging objects.
Acting with unusual hostility.
Responding aggressively to minor frustrations.
Aggression is behavioural because it concerns observable action.
Anger compared with aggression
Anger is an emotional characteristic.
Aggression is a behavioural characteristic.
For example:
Feeling intensely angry is emotional.
Shouting at another person is behavioural aggression.
Believing that another person deliberately caused every problem is cognitive.
These may occur together, but they belong to different categories.
Example
After making a small mistake, Rowan feels intensely angry and throws a book across the room.
The anger is an emotional characteristic.
Throwing the book is behavioural aggression.
Self-harm
Some people experiencing depression may direct aggression towards themselves through self-harm.
Self-harm is a behavioural characteristic because it involves an action.
It may be associated with:
Severe emotional distress.
Anger directed inward.
Low self-esteem.
Negative beliefs about the self.
Self-harm is not experienced by everyone with depression and should not be treated as an inevitable characteristic.
In an examination, a scenario may refer indirectly to behaviour through phrases such as:
Deliberately harming themselves.
Directing aggression inward.
Engaging in behaviour that causes personal injury.
Do not add details that are not provided in the scenario.
Summary of behavioural characteristics
Behavioural characteristic | Description | Example |
Reduced activity | A substantial decline in movement, participation or task completion | Remaining in bed and stopping regular activities |
Psychomotor agitation | Increased restless or agitated movement | Repeated pacing and inability to sit still |
Social withdrawal | Reducing contact with other people | Declining invitations and no longer meeting friends |
Sleep disruption | Sleeping considerably more, less or at different times | Waking repeatedly or sleeping through the day |
Eating disruption | A noticeable increase or decrease in eating | Skipping meals or eating much more than usual |
Aggression | Behaviour expressing hostility or causing harm | Shouting or damaging objects |
Self-harm | Aggressive behaviour directed towards the self | Deliberately causing personal injury |
Emotional characteristics of depression
Emotional characteristics concern the feelings experienced by the individual.
The main emotional characteristics are:
Lowered mood.
Anger.
Lowered self-esteem.
Lowered mood
Lowered mood is a persistent experience of sadness or emotional unhappiness.
The person may feel:
Sad.
Empty.
Hopeless.
Miserable.
Tearful.
Emotionally numb.
Unable to experience their usual level of enjoyment.
The mood may continue even when there is no immediate event that explains its intensity.
Lowered mood is more than an ordinary bad day
Everyone experiences periods of sadness.
A depressive characteristic is more likely to involve a pattern that is:
Persistent.
Intense.
Difficult to change.
Present across different situations.
Associated with other behavioural or cognitive changes.
A person may continue feeling low despite:
Positive events.
Reassurance.
Support.
Evidence that a problem is temporary.
Example
Although Isla receives good news about an application, she continues to feel deeply miserable and says that nothing changes how low she feels.
The emotional characteristic is lowered mood.
Her belief that nothing can improve may also be cognitive.
Emotional numbness
Lowered mood does not always mean frequent crying.
Some people may describe feeling:
Empty.
Emotionally flat.
Disconnected.
Unable to experience their usual emotions.
A person could therefore experience severe low mood without displaying obvious sadness to other people.
Loss of emotional enjoyment
Activities that previously produced enjoyment may no longer create the same emotional response.
For example, a person may attend an event they once enjoyed but report:
Feeling no pleasure.
Feeling emotionally detached.
Wanting the activity to end.
Being unable to become interested.
The lack of enjoyment is emotional.
Stopping the activity altogether is behavioural.
Anger
Depression may involve increased anger or irritability.
A person may feel:
Angry with themselves.
Angry with other people.
Frustrated.
Irritable.
Hostile.
Easily upset by minor events.
Anger directed towards the self
The individual may feel angry because they believe they have:
Failed.
Disappointed other people.
Made unacceptable mistakes.
Been unable to control their difficulties.
This anger may be connected with low self-esteem and negative thinking.
Anger directed towards others
A person may become angry with:
Friends.
Family.
Colleagues.
Professionals.
People offering reassurance.
They may interpret ordinary comments as:
Criticism.
Rejection.
Evidence that others do not understand.
Confirmation that relationships are failing.
Anger compared with lowered mood
Depression should not be described only as sadness.
A person may appear:
Irritable.
Frustrated.
Hostile.
Easily angered.
while also experiencing low mood.
Example
When a friend asks whether he needs help, Luca immediately feels angry and believes that the question is criticism.
The anger is emotional.
The interpretation that the question is criticism is cognitive.
Any aggressive response would be behavioural.
Lowered self-esteem
What is self-esteem?
Self-esteem is the value a person places on themselves.
Lowered self-esteem means that the person has a persistently negative emotional evaluation of their own worth.
They may feel:
Worthless.
Inferior.
Inadequate.
Unimportant.
Unlovable.
Like a failure.
Self-esteem and mistakes
A person with lowered self-esteem may treat one mistake as evidence that their whole identity is defective.
For example:
“I answered one question incorrectly, so I am completely useless.”
The feeling of worthlessness is emotional.
The reasoning that one mistake proves complete failure is cognitive and may demonstrate absolutist thinking.
Self-esteem and social withdrawal
Lowered self-esteem may contribute to behavioural withdrawal.
The person may avoid others because they feel:
Unworthy of friendship.
Embarrassed.
Unable to contribute.
Certain that others will reject them.
This illustrates how emotional characteristics can influence behaviour.
Example
Despite receiving praise from colleagues, Erin feels that she has no value and is undeserving of their support.
Erin demonstrates lowered self-esteem.
Her refusal to accept positive evidence may also reflect a cognitive bias.
Summary of emotional characteristics
Emotional characteristic | Description | Example |
Lowered mood | Persistent sadness, emptiness or emotional unhappiness | Feeling miserable across different situations |
Anger | Increased irritability, hostility or frustration | Feeling furious after a minor event |
Lowered self-esteem | A negative emotional evaluation of personal worth | Feeling worthless or inferior |
Cognitive characteristics of depression
Cognitive characteristics concern thoughts, beliefs, attention and information processing.
The main cognitive characteristics are:
Poor concentration.
Dwelling on negative experiences.
Absolutist thinking.
Poor concentration
Depression may make it difficult to direct and maintain attention.
The person may struggle to:
Read.
Follow a conversation.
Watch a programme.
Complete schoolwork.
Remember instructions.
Make ordinary decisions.
Remain focused on one task.
Organise their thoughts.
Attention may drift
A person may begin a task but repeatedly lose track of:
What they were doing.
What they have read.
What another person has said.
Which decision they were trying to make.
This may lead to incomplete activities, but the underlying difficulty focusing is cognitive.
Poor concentration compared with reduced activity
Poor concentration is cognitive because it concerns attention and mental processing.
Reduced activity is behavioural because it concerns what the person does.
For example:
Being unable to focus on an assignment is cognitive.
Closing the assignment and remaining in bed is behavioural.
Decision-making
Poor concentration may make even ordinary decisions feel difficult.
A person might struggle to decide:
What to eat.
Which task to complete first.
What clothes to wear.
Whether to attend an event.
How to respond to a message.
The person may repeatedly reconsider the same options without reaching a decision.
Example
During lessons, Alfie reads the same paragraph several times but cannot recall what it says.
He also loses track of questions before completing them.
This demonstrates poor concentration.
Dwelling on negative experiences
What does dwelling mean?
Dwelling on negative experiences means repeatedly thinking about unpleasant events, perceived failures or negative information.
The person may continue reviewing:
Past mistakes.
Embarrassing events.
Criticism.
Rejection.
Missed opportunities.
Situations they believe they handled badly.
Their attention becomes focused on negative material.
Repetitive negative thinking
A person may replay the same event repeatedly without reaching a helpful solution.
For example:
“Why did I say that?”“Everybody must think I am foolish.”“I always ruin everything.”
The thinking may continue even when:
The event was minor.
Other people have forgotten it.
The person has received reassurance.
No further action can be taken.
Negative focus
The person may:
Remember criticism more easily than praise.
Focus on one mistake rather than several successes.
Interpret neutral information negatively.
Ignore evidence that does not fit the negative view.
Repeatedly predict undesirable outcomes.
Dwelling compared with problem-solving
Thinking about a difficult event is not automatically a depressive characteristic.
Constructive problem-solving may involve:
Identifying the problem.
Considering possible solutions.
Choosing an action.
Reviewing the result.
Dwelling involves repeated negative thought without effective progress.
Example
After receiving nine positive comments and one suggestion for improvement, Leila thinks only about the criticism for several days.
She repeatedly replays it and ignores the positive feedback.
This demonstrates dwelling on negative experiences.
Absolutist thinking
What is absolutist thinking?
Absolutist thinking means viewing situations in rigid, all-or-nothing terms.
The person thinks in extremes rather than recognising:
Degrees.
Exceptions.
Mixed outcomes.
Uncertainty.
The possibility of improvement.
It is sometimes described as black-and-white thinking.
Absolutist language
Absolutist thinking may be recognised through words such as:
Always.
Never.
Everyone.
Nobody.
Completely.
Entirely.
Total failure.
Nothing.
Examples include:
“I always get everything wrong.”
“Nobody cares about me.”
“I will never succeed.”
“If I am not perfect, I am a complete failure.”
“Everything has been ruined.”
“Nothing will ever improve.”
Turning one event into a universal conclusion
A person may take one negative event and apply it to every situation.
For example:
One friend cancels a meeting → “Nobody wants to spend time with me.”
The conclusion is much broader than the evidence supports.
Ignoring the middle ground
Many experiences are mixed.
For example, an examination answer may contain:
Accurate points.
Inaccurate points.
Effective application.
Areas that need improvement.
Absolutist thinking removes this complexity:
“The answer was not perfect, so it was completely worthless.”
Absolutist thinking and lowered self-esteem
The cognitive characteristic may contribute to the emotional characteristic.
For example:
A person makes one mistake.
They think, “I fail at everything.”
They feel worthless.
They stop trying.
This sequence includes:
Absolutist thinking.
Lowered self-esteem.
Reduced activity.
Example
After receiving one rejection, Max says that he will never be successful and that every future application will fail.
This demonstrates absolutist thinking because one event is treated as proof of an unchangeable outcome.
Summary of cognitive characteristics
Cognitive characteristic | Description | Example |
Poor concentration | Difficulty directing or maintaining attention | Reading repeatedly without absorbing information |
Dwelling on negatives | Repeatedly focusing on unpleasant events or perceived failures | Thinking about one criticism for several days |
Absolutist thinking | Viewing situations in rigid all-or-nothing terms | Believing one mistake means total failure |
Complete comparison of depression characteristics
Behavioural | Emotional | Cognitive |
Reduced activity | Lowered mood | Poor concentration |
Psychomotor agitation | Anger | Dwelling on negative experiences |
Social withdrawal | Lowered self-esteem | Absolutist thinking |
Disrupted sleep | ||
Disrupted eating | ||
Aggression | ||
Self-harm |
Quick classification test
Ask:
Can I observe an action? It is likely behavioural.
Does the statement describe a feeling? It is likely emotional.
Does it describe a thought, belief or mental process? It is likely cognitive.
How the characteristics interact
Depression does not consist of three completely separate sets of symptoms.
Behaviour, emotion and cognition may influence one another.
Example cycle
A student makes a mistake.
They think, “I fail at everything.”
Their self-esteem falls.
They stop attending lessons.
Unfinished work accumulates.
They dwell on this as further evidence of failure.
This sequence includes:
Cognitive:Â absolutist thinking.
Emotional:Â lowered self-esteem.
Behavioural:Â reduced activity and withdrawal.
Cognitive:Â dwelling on negative experiences.
Another example
A person’s sleep becomes disrupted.
They feel exhausted.
Concentration becomes more difficult.
They complete fewer activities.
They feel increasingly angry with themselves.
They conclude that they are incapable of succeeding.
Again, all three categories interact.
One characteristic can produce several consequences
Poor concentration may lead to:
Unfinished work.
Missed instructions.
Poorer performance.
Frustration.
Withdrawal.
However, poor concentration itself remains cognitive.
The consequences may be behavioural or emotional.
Not everyone displays every characteristic
People experiencing depression may show different combinations.
One person may display:
Reduced activity.
Sleeping much more.
Lowered mood.
Poor concentration.
Another may display:
Psychomotor agitation.
Reduced eating.
Anger.
Absolutist thinking.
The presence of one characteristic alone is not enough to make a complete judgement.
The overall pattern, duration and effect on life would need to be considered.
Characteristics may vary over time
The same person may also show different characteristics at different times.
For example:
Restlessness may later become reduced activity.
Reduced eating may later become increased eating.
Anger may become more noticeable than sadness.
Concentration may vary across the day.
Avoid assuming that depression always looks identical.
Depression and everyday functioning
Depressive characteristics may interfere with:
Personal care.
Education.
Employment.
Relationships.
Sleep.
Eating.
Decision-making.
Social participation.
For example:
Characteristic | Possible effect on functioning |
Reduced activity | Tasks and responsibilities remain unfinished |
Social withdrawal | Relationships become difficult to maintain |
Sleep disruption | Attendance and concentration may decline |
Poor concentration | Schoolwork or employment tasks become difficult |
Lowered self-esteem | The person may stop seeking opportunities |
Absolutist thinking | One setback may lead to abandoning a goal |
The practical impact can be considered using failure to function adequately.
However, the two topics should remain distinct:
Characteristics describe the person’s behaviour, feelings and thoughts.
Failure to function is a definition used to judge mental health.
Depression and ideal mental health
Some characteristics may also show departure from positive psychological wellbeing.
For example:
Lowered self-esteem contrasts with positive self-attitudes.
Difficulty coping contrasts with resistance to stress.
Withdrawal from valued goals may reduce self-actualisation.
Reduced activity may affect environmental mastery.
These links can be understood through Jahoda’s positive criteria for wellbeing.
Again, the categories should not be confused in a characteristics question.
Distinguishing depression from phobias
Both depression and phobias may involve:
Avoidance or withdrawal.
Emotional distress.
Difficulties concentrating.
Interference with ordinary activities.
However, the patterns differ.
Depression | Phobias |
Lowered mood is central | Fear and anxiety are central |
Reduced activity may occur across many situations | Avoidance is focused on a phobic stimulus |
Dwelling may concern failures or negative experiences | Attention focuses on the feared object or situation |
Absolutist thinking may concern the self and future | Irrational beliefs concern danger from the stimulus |
Sleep and eating may be disrupted | Panic and endurance are key behavioural characteristics |
The phobic pattern is covered in the behavioural, emotional and cognitive profile of phobias.
Distinguishing depression from obsessive-compulsive disorder
Depression and obsessive-compulsive disorder may both involve:
Anxiety or distress.
Low mood.
Disruption to everyday life.
Repetitive negative thinking.
However:
Depression | Obsessive-compulsive disorder |
Dwelling focuses on negative events or perceived failures | Obsessions are intrusive, recurring thoughts or impulses |
Reduced activity or agitation may occur | Compulsions involve repetitive actions or mental acts |
Absolutist thinking is a cognitive characteristic | Excessive anxiety and awareness of irrationality may be cognitive features |
Lowered mood and self-esteem are central emotional characteristics | Anxiety, guilt, low mood and self-loathing may occur |
The distinction is developed in obsessions, compulsions and associated characteristics.
Applying characteristics to unfamiliar scenarios
Scenario 1: reduced activity and low mood
Ava previously attended every lesson and trained with a sports team.
She now remains in bed for most of the day, has stopped training and reports feeling persistently miserable.
The characteristics are:
Reduced activity:Â Ava remains in bed.
Withdrawal from activities:Â She has stopped training.
Lowered mood:Â She feels persistently miserable.
Scenario 2: poor concentration
Ben reads the same page several times but cannot remember its meaning.
During conversations, he loses track of what other people are saying.
Ben demonstrates poor concentration because he cannot maintain attention or process information effectively.
Scenario 3: absolutist thinking
After receiving one low mark, Chloe says:
“I fail at everything. I will never achieve anything.”
This demonstrates absolutist thinking because:
One result is generalised to every area.
The words “everything” and “never” show extreme thinking.
No middle ground or possibility of improvement is recognised.
Scenario 4: sleep and eating disruption
Dylan stays awake for most of the night, sleeps throughout the day and frequently misses meals.
The behavioural characteristics are:
Disrupted sleep.
Disrupted eating.
The scenario does not provide enough evidence to claim that Dylan also has low self-esteem or absolutist thinking.
Scenario 5: anger and aggression
Elise feels intense anger after a minor criticism and tears up her work.
The characteristics are:
Anger:Â emotional.
Aggression:Â tearing up the work is behavioural.
The interpretation of the criticism would be cognitive if the scenario described it.
Scenario 6: dwelling on negatives
Farah receives several positive comments and one criticism.
For the rest of the week, she thinks repeatedly about the criticism and says that the positive comments do not matter.
Farah demonstrates dwelling on negative experiences because her attention remains fixed on the one negative comment.
Scenario 7: lowered self-esteem
Gareth receives reassurance from friends but continues to feel worthless and believes that he contributes nothing to their relationships.
This may show:
Lowered self-esteem:Â Gareth feels worthless.
Negative cognition:Â He believes that he contributes nothing.
Absolutist thinking: The word “nothing” suggests an extreme conclusion.
Scenario 8: psychomotor agitation
Hana repeatedly paces around the room, fidgets constantly and says she cannot remain still.
This demonstrates psychomotor agitation because her level of physical activity is unusually restless and increased.
A step-by-step application method
Step 1: Highlight actions
Look for observable behaviour such as:
Staying in bed.
Missing lessons.
Pacing.
Withdrawing.
Eating less.
Sleeping more.
Acting aggressively.
These indicate behavioural characteristics.
Step 2: Highlight feelings
Look for emotional language such as:
Sad.
Empty.
Angry.
Worthless.
Irritable.
Miserable.
These indicate emotional characteristics.
Step 3: Highlight thoughts
Look for evidence that the person:
Cannot concentrate.
Replays negative experiences.
Uses words such as “always” or “never”.
Treats one event as total failure.
Ignores positive evidence.
These indicate cognitive characteristics.
Step 4: Name the precise characteristic
Do not write only:
“This is a cognitive symptom.”
Write:
“This demonstrates absolutist thinking because one setback is interpreted as proof that every future attempt will fail.”
Step 5: Link to the scenario
Use the exact details provided.
A strong application answer combines:
Psychological terminology.
Scenario evidence.
Explanation of the connection.
Common areas of overlap
Some scenario details may appear to fit more than one category.
The wording usually reveals the best answer.
“They feel worthless”
This is lowered self-esteem, an emotional characteristic.
“They believe they are completely worthless”
This is a negative cognition and may also demonstrate absolutist thinking.
“They no longer meet friends”
This is social withdrawal, a behavioural characteristic.
“They feel sad when thinking about friends”
This is lowered mood, an emotional characteristic.
“They think nobody could ever like them”
This is absolutist thinking, a cognitive characteristic.
“They cannot complete an assignment”
This could have different interpretations:
If they cannot focus, it indicates poor concentration.
If they do not begin any tasks, it may show reduced activity.
If they think completing it is pointless, this is cognitive.
If they feel worthless because it is unfinished, this is emotional.
Use the explanation provided by the scenario rather than making assumptions.
Answering description questions
Two-mark questions
A two-mark response usually requires:
Naming one relevant characteristic.
Explaining what it means.
Example structure:
One cognitive characteristic is absolutist thinking. This occurs when the person views situations in rigid all-or-nothing terms, such as treating one mistake as total failure.
Four-mark questions
A four-mark response may require two characteristics.
Develop each one separately.
For example:
Name reduced activity.
Explain the observable decline in behaviour.
Name sleep disruption.
Explain that the person may sleep much more or less than usual.
Six-mark questions
A six-mark description may ask for behavioural, emotional and cognitive characteristics.
A clear structure is:
One developed behavioural characteristic.
One developed emotional characteristic.
One developed cognitive characteristic.
Additional relevant detail where appropriate.
Do not use all six marks describing only one category unless the question allows it.
Answering application questions
Weak application
Morgan has depression because Morgan is sad.
This answer:
Does not use precise terminology.
Does not identify several relevant features.
Makes a diagnosis from limited evidence.
Does not explain the scenario.
Stronger application
Morgan demonstrates lowered mood because they report feeling persistently miserable. They also show reduced activity because they have stopped attending college, and absolutist thinking because they say that they will never succeed at anything.
Avoid unsupported assumptions
Suppose a scenario states that a person sleeps throughout the day.
You can identify disrupted sleep.
You cannot automatically claim that they:
Have low self-esteem.
Are aggressive.
Dwell on negative experiences.
Only apply characteristics for which evidence is provided.
Use cautious wording
Appropriate phrases include:
“This is consistent with…”
“This demonstrates…”
“This could indicate…”
“The scenario provides evidence of…”
Avoid claiming that a short scenario provides a complete diagnosis.
Hints from the Examiner Reports đź’ˇ
Examiner hint:Â Decide whether the evidence is an action, feeling or thought before classifying it. AQA examiner commentary has noted that students sometimes mistake cognitive information for an emotional characteristic.
Examiner hint:Â Anxiety, sadness and anger describe emotions. Awareness, beliefs, concentration and interpretations are cognitive.
Examiner hint: Use specialist terminology rather than vague descriptions. Write “lowered mood”, “reduced activity” or “absolutist thinking” instead of saying only that the person is “not doing well”.
Examiner hint: Match each characteristic to precise words or actions from the scenario. AQA’s June 2023 examiner report praised students who extracted relevant application material from a depression-related diary and connected it to appropriate psychological concepts.
Examiner hint:Â Depression-related material identified in official marking included words and phrases such as isolation, loneliness and sadness. These must still be interpreted accurately rather than copied without explanation.
Examiner hint: Do not confuse characteristics with cognitive explanations. Beck’s negative triad and Ellis’s ABC model explain depression, whereas lowered mood, reduced activity and poor concentration describe it.
Examiner hint: One scenario detail may support more than one category, but each point must be explained separately. For example, “I feel worthless” indicates lowered self-esteem, while “I am completely worthless” may also demonstrate absolutist thinking.
Common Mistakes ⚠️
Mistake: Describing all depression characteristics as sadness
Why this is incorrect:
Depression includes behavioural, emotional and cognitive changes.
How to improve:
Revise examples from all three categories.
Mistake: Classifying reduced activity as emotional
Why this is incorrect:
Reduced activity concerns observable behaviour.
How to improve:
Ask what the person does rather than what they feel.
Mistake: Classifying poor concentration as behavioural
Why this is incorrect:
Concentration is a mental process involving attention.
How to improve:
Classify it as cognitive, even though it may produce behavioural consequences.
Mistake: Confusing anger and aggression
Why this is incorrect:
Anger is an emotion. Aggression is behaviour.
How to improve:
Separate feeling angry from shouting, damaging objects or causing harm.
Mistake: Saying depression always reduces activity
Why this is incorrect:
Some people may display increased restless activity or psychomotor agitation.
How to improve:
Describe both possible changes in activity levels.
Mistake: Saying depression always causes reduced sleep
Why this is incorrect:
Some people sleep less, while others sleep much more.
How to improve:
Refer to disruption or change rather than only one direction.
Mistake: Saying depression always causes loss of appetite
Why this is incorrect:
Eating may decrease or increase.
How to improve:
Describe a disruption to the person’s usual eating behaviour.
Mistake: Calling social withdrawal an emotion
Why this is incorrect:
Withdrawal concerns reducing contact with other people.
How to improve:
Classify the action as behavioural.
Mistake: Describing lowered self-esteem only as a thought
Why this may be incomplete:
AQA treats lowered self-esteem as an emotional characteristic involving feelings of low personal worth.
How to improve:
Distinguish the feeling of worthlessness from the specific beliefs producing it.
Mistake: Saying dwelling means remembering any negative event
Why this is incorrect:
Remembering an unpleasant event can be ordinary.
How to improve:
Explain that dwelling involves repetitive and persistent negative focus.
Mistake: Saying absolutist thinking means being certain
Why this is incomplete:
The key feature is all-or-nothing thinking with no middle ground.
How to improve:
Look for extreme conclusions using words such as “always”, “never” and “completely”.
Mistake: Giving Beck’s negative triad as a characteristic
Why this does not answer the question directly:
The negative triad is part of a cognitive explanation of depression.
How to improve:
Use poor concentration, dwelling and absolutist thinking in a characteristics question.
Mistake: Giving Ellis’s ABC model
Why this is irrelevant:
The ABC model explains how irrational beliefs may lead to depression.
How to improve:
Keep explanation material for the later lesson on Ellis.
Mistake: Describing cognitive behaviour therapy
Why this is irrelevant:
Cognitive behaviour therapy is a treatment.
How to improve:
Check whether the question asks about characteristics, explanations or therapies.
Mistake: Diagnosing depression from one scenario detail
Why this is too strong:
One behaviour or feeling does not provide a complete assessment.
How to improve:
State that the evidence is consistent with a particular characteristic.
Mistake: Inventing symptoms that are not in the scenario
Why this loses application credit:
Application must be grounded in the material provided.
How to improve:
Use only the actions, feelings and thoughts that are explicitly described.
Mistake: Repeating the scenario without psychological terminology
Why this is incomplete:
Application requires both evidence and knowledge.
How to improve:
Name the characteristic and explain the connection.
Exam-Style Questions ✍️
Question 1
Which one of the following is a cognitive characteristic of depression?
A. Reduced activity
B. Lowered mood
C. Poor concentration
D. Aggression
[1 mark]
reveal mark scheme and indicative content
Answer: C. Poor concentration
Question 2
Define absolutist thinking as a cognitive characteristic of depression.
[2 marks]
reveal mark scheme and indicative content
Mark scheme
AO1 = 2
2 marks:Â Clear definition referring to thinking in rigid, all-or-nothing terms with no middle ground.
1 mark:Â Limited or partial definition.
Indicative content
Also described as black-and-white thinking.
Events are viewed in extreme categories, such as complete success or total failure.
The person does not recognise more balanced possibilities.
Example answer
Absolutist thinking is viewing situations in extreme, all-or-nothing terms, such as believing that something is either a complete success or a total failure.
Question 3
Outline two behavioural characteristics of depression.
[4 marks]
reveal mark scheme and indicative content
Mark scheme
AO1 = 4
Award up to 2 marks for each behavioural characteristic.
Indicative content
Credit any two appropriate characteristics, including:
Reduced activity, such as low energy, reduced movement or remaining inactive for long periods.
Social withdrawal, avoiding social contact or activities.
Sleep disturbance, including insomnia or hypersomnia.
Changes in eating patterns.
Reduced speech.
Aggressive or self-destructive behaviour where appropriately described.
AQA has directly credited changes in sleeping and eating, social withdrawal, reduced movement and reduced speech.
Example answer
One behavioural characteristic is reduced activity, where a person may lack energy and find it difficult to complete normal activities. Another is social withdrawal, where the person reduces contact with friends or avoids social situations.
Question 4
Explain one difference between anger and aggression in the context of depression.
[3 marks]
reveal mark scheme and indicative content
Mark scheme
AO1 = 3
1 mark:Â Anger is an emotional characteristic, involving feelings such as irritability or hostility.
1 mark:Â Aggression is a behavioural characteristic, involving actions directed towards oneself, other people or objects.
1 mark:Â Clear comparison or elaboration.
Example answer
Anger is an emotional characteristic because it refers to feelings of irritation or hostility. Aggression is behavioural because it involves acting on these feelings, for example through hostile or destructive behaviour.
Question 5
Maisie has stopped attending social activities and spends most of the day in bed. She reports feeling persistently miserable.
Identify and explain one behavioural and one emotional characteristic shown by Maisie.
[4 marks]
reveal mark scheme and indicative content
Mark scheme
AO2 = 4
Award up to 2 marks for each characteristic.
Behavioural characteristic
Social withdrawal and/or reduced activity.
Maisie has stopped attending social activities and spends most of the day in bed.
Emotional characteristic
Lowered mood.
Her persistent misery shows an ongoing negative emotional state.
Example answer
Maisie shows social withdrawal because she has stopped attending social activities. Spending most of the day in bed also suggests reduced activity. Her persistent feeling of misery demonstrates lowered mood, which is an emotional characteristic of depression.
Question 6
After receiving one low mark, Theo says:
“I always fail. Nothing I do will ever be good enough.”
Use your knowledge of depression to explain the cognitive characteristic shown by Theo.
[4 marks]
reveal mark scheme and indicative content
Mark scheme
AO2 = 4
Award 1 mark each for:
Identifying absolutist thinking.
Theo uses extreme terms such as “always” and “ever”.
He interprets one poor mark as evidence of complete or continuing failure.
This demonstrates rigid, all-or-nothing thinking rather than a balanced interpretation of the event.
Example answer
Theo shows absolutist thinking because he interprets one low mark in extreme, all-or-nothing terms. Saying that he “always” fails and will “never” be good enough turns one setback into a general conclusion about everything he does rather than recognising that one low mark does not mean total failure.
Question 7
Saira reads the same paragraph repeatedly but cannot remember its meaning. She thinks continuously about one critical comment and ignores several positive comments.
Identify and explain two cognitive characteristics shown by Saira.
[4 marks]
reveal mark scheme and indicative content
Mark scheme
AO2 = 4
Award up to 2 marks for each characteristic.
Poor concentration
Saira repeatedly reads the paragraph but cannot process or remember its meaning.
Dwelling on the negative
She focuses repeatedly on one critical comment.
She ignores several positive comments and gives disproportionate attention to negative information.
Example answer
Saira shows poor concentration because she repeatedly reads the paragraph but cannot retain or process its meaning. She also dwells on negative information because she repeatedly thinks about the single criticism while ignoring several positive comments.Question 8
The table shows changes in Alex’s behaviour.
Behaviour | Previously | Currently |
Sleep | Regular night-time sleep | Awake most of the night and asleep during the day |
Social contact | Met friends twice a week | Declines every invitation |
Activity | Attended college and exercised | Remains at home and completes few activities |
Use the information in the table to explain three behavioural characteristics of depression.
[6 marks]
reveal mark scheme and indicative content
Mark scheme
AO2 = 6
Award up to 2 marks for each correctly identified and explained characteristic.
Indicative content
Sleep disturbance
Alex was previously sleeping normally at night.
Alex is now awake most of the night and asleep during the day.
Social withdrawal
Alex previously met friends twice a week.
Alex now declines every invitation.
Reduced activity
Alex previously attended college and exercised.
Alex now remains at home and completes few activities.
Example answer
Alex shows disturbed sleep because he has changed from regular night-time sleep to being awake most of the night and sleeping during the day. He shows social withdrawal because he previously met friends twice a week but now declines every invitation. He also shows reduced activity because he no longer attends college or exercises and completes very few activities at home.
These examples are consistent with behavioural characteristics explicitly credited by AQA, including sleep changes, social withdrawal and reduced movement.
Question 9
Jamie feels worthless after making a minor mistake, repeatedly thinks about the mistake and tears up their work.
Identify one emotional, one cognitive and one behavioural characteristic shown by Jamie.
[6 marks]
reveal mark scheme and indicative content
Mark scheme
AO2 = 6
Award up to 2 marks for each correctly identified and explained characteristic.
Indicative content
Emotional
Low self-esteem or feelings of worthlessness.
Jamie feels worthless after a relatively minor mistake.
Cognitive
Dwelling on the negative/rumination.
Jamie repeatedly thinks about the mistake rather than moving on from it.
Behavioural
Aggressive or destructive behaviour.
Jamie tears up their work in response to the mistake.
Example answer
Jamie shows low self-esteem as an emotional characteristic because a minor mistake makes them feel worthless. They show a cognitive characteristic by dwelling repeatedly on the mistake. Their behaviour in tearing up the work is a destructive or aggressive behavioural response.
Question 10
Describe the behavioural, emotional and cognitive characteristics of depression.
[6 marks]
reveal mark scheme and indicative content
Mark scheme
AO1 = 6
5 to 6 marks:Â Knowledge of behavioural, emotional and cognitive characteristics is clear and accurate, with appropriate detail from all three categories.
3 to 4 marks:Â Some accurate knowledge of the three categories is present, although detail is uneven or one category is limited.
1 to 2 marks:Â Very limited knowledge, perhaps covering only one category.
0 marks:Â No relevant content.
Indicative content
Behavioural characteristics
Reduced activity and energy.
Social withdrawal.
Sleep disturbance, including insomnia or hypersomnia.
Changes in eating.
Reduced movement or speech.
Aggressive or self-destructive behaviour.
Emotional characteristics
Lowered mood, persistent sadness or misery.
Anger or irritability.
Low self-esteem, including feelings of worthlessness.
Cognitive characteristics
Poor concentration, difficulty focusing or processing information.
Dwelling on negative information, giving excessive attention to negative events.
Absolutist thinking, viewing situations in rigid, all-or-nothing terms.
The current specification requires students to distinguish behavioural, emotional and cognitive characteristics of depression, while AQA's published marking has specifically confirmed several of the behavioural characteristics above. Â
Example answer
Behavioural characteristics of depression include reduced activity, social withdrawal and disturbances to sleeping or eating. A person may have little energy and stop taking part in activities they previously enjoyed. Emotional characteristics include persistently lowered mood, anger or irritability and low self-esteem. Cognitive characteristics include poor concentration, dwelling on negative information and absolutist thinking, where situations are viewed in extreme, all-or-nothing terms.
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