Measuring stress through self-report | AQA A-Level Psychology Revision

For 7182 specification, first teach in September 2025

AQA A-Level Psychology | Free Revision Notes

Estimated study time: 65 minutes

These measuring stress through self-report A-Level Psychology revision notes examine how psychologists use questionnaires and rating scales to investigate stressful experiences. You will study the Social Readjustment Ratings Scale, which measures major life events, and the Hassles and Uplifts Scale, which measures everyday positive and negative experiences. Understanding their strengths and limitations will prepare you to compare subjective reports with objective biological indicators [Physiological measures of stress] and interpret evidence about the causes and consequences of stress.

Learning Objectives 🎯

By the end of this revision page, you should be able to:

• Define a self-report measure of stress.

• Describe the structure and scoring of the Social Readjustment Ratings Scale.

• Calculate a total life change unit score.

• Describe the Hassles and Uplifts Scale.

• Compare the information produced by the two self-report scales.

• Apply self-report measures to unfamiliar research situations.

• Evaluate the reliability, validity and usefulness of self-report measures of stress.

Revision Notes 📚

What does the AQA specification require?

Within the Stress option, AQA requires students to study:

• Self-report scales used to measure stress.

• The Social Readjustment Ratings Scale.

• The Hassles and Uplifts Scale.

• Physiological measures, including skin conductance response.

This means you must know how each self-report scale works and be able to evaluate the quality of the evidence it produces.

The specification names the two scales but does not require self-report to be treated as a direct measurement of physiological arousal. Self-report scales measure what participants say about their experiences, whereas physiological measures record bodily activity.

What is a self-report measure?

A self-report measure is a method in which participants provide information about their own experiences, feelings, attitudes or behaviour.

Self-report techniques may include:

• Questionnaires.

• Rating scales.

• Interviews.

• Checklists.

In this lesson, the focus is on structured scales that produce numerical scores.

The participant may be asked to report:

• Which life events they have experienced.

• Which everyday difficulties have occurred.

• How severe those difficulties seemed.

• Which positive everyday experiences occurred.

Why use self-report to measure stress?

Stress includes a subjective component.

An event that is highly stressful for one person may be manageable or even positive for another. A self-report measure allows psychologists to investigate the participant’s own experiences rather than relying entirely on an external observer.

Self-report can therefore provide information that may not be directly visible, such as:

• Whether the participant experienced an event.

• How demanding they found it.

• How frequently it occurred.

• How they interpreted it.

• Whether it disrupted their life.

However, the accuracy of the measure depends on the participant reporting their experiences honestly and remembering them accurately.

What do self-report scales actually measure?

Self-report scales do not all measure the same aspect of stress.

The Social Readjustment Ratings Scale measures exposure to major events that require adjustment.

The Hassles and Uplifts Scale measures everyday positive and negative experiences.

Neither scale directly measures:

• Cortisol.

• Heart rate.

• Blood pressure.

• Skin conductivity.

• Activation of the autonomic nervous system.

The scales provide an indirect estimate of stress based on reported experiences.

Subjective experience and objective measurement

Subjective data are influenced by the participant’s personal experiences, interpretations or judgements.

Objective data are based on observable measurements that are less dependent on personal interpretation.

Self-report measures are generally more subjective because they depend on what the participant remembers and reports.

This is not automatically a weakness. Stress is partly subjective, so personal reports may provide information that a physiological recording cannot.

For example:

• A skin conductance recording can show increased arousal.

• It cannot independently explain which event the person found stressful or why.

• A self-report may provide this contextual information.

The Social Readjustment Ratings Scale

What is the SRRS?

The Social Readjustment Ratings Scale, abbreviated to SRRS, is a self-report scale associated with Holmes and Rahe.

It measures the number of significant life events a person has experienced during a specified period.

The original scale contains 43 life events.

Examples include:

• Marriage.

• A change of job.

• Other major changes requiring adaptation.

Each event is assigned a numerical value called a life change unit.

AQA mark schemes identify the SRRS as a 43-item scale in which life change unit values accumulate to produce an overall life-change score.

What does the SRRS measure?

The SRRS is based on the principle that a major life event may become stressful because it requires social readjustment.

Readjustment may involve changes to:

• Daily routines.

• Responsibilities.

• Relationships.

• Work.

• Finances.

• Social roles.

• Living arrangements.

The scale estimates how much adjustment a person has faced by adding together the values of their reported life events.

This develops the explanation covered in major events and readjustment [Life changes].

Life change units

A life change unit, abbreviated to LCU, is a numerical value representing the estimated amount of adjustment associated with a life event.

The LCU values were based on judgements made by a sample of judges who considered the relative readjustment required by different events.

The values are standardised. This means that a listed event receives the same LCU value whenever it is scored.

Examples recognised in AQA assessment materials include:

Life event	Life change units
Marriage	50
Changing job	36

A higher LCU value represents a greater estimated requirement for readjustment.

Calculating a total LCU score

The participant identifies the life events they have experienced.

The researcher adds the LCU values for all the relevant events.

The formula is:

Total LCU score=∑LCU values for reported life events

The Greek capital letter sigma, ∑, means “add together”.

Worked example

Suppose a participant reports:

• Marriage, worth 50 LCUs.

• Changing job, worth 36 LCUs.

The calculation is:

Total LCU score=50+36Total LCU score=86 LCUs

The participant’s total is 86 LCUs.

What does a high score mean?

A high total score indicates that the participant has experienced a large estimated amount of life readjustment.

Holmes and Rahe proposed that higher scores were related to a greater likelihood of poor health.

Past AQA mark schemes have recognised the interpretation that a score exceeding 300 LCUs was associated with an estimated 80% chance of illness during the following year.

This should be interpreted carefully.

A high score is:

• An estimate of recent life change.

• A possible indicator of increased risk.

• A score that can be correlated with health outcomes.

It is not:

• A diagnosis of stress.

• Proof that a person will become ill.

• A direct measurement of physiological arousal.

• Evidence that life changes caused an illness.

Positive and negative life events

The SRRS includes events that may be experienced as positive or negative.

For example, marriage may be:

• Desired.

• Enjoyable.

• Planned.

However, it may still require substantial readjustment.

This reflects the scale’s central assumption:

The amount of change required may be stressful, regardless of whether the event is viewed positively or negatively.

This assumption can be evaluated because the emotional meaning and controllability of an event may affect its impact.

Standardised scoring

A strength of standardised LCU values is that every participant’s score is calculated consistently.

This allows researchers to:

• Compare participants.

• Replicate the procedure.

• Analyse relationships statistically.

• Investigate whether higher scores predict illness.

• Use the same method across large samples.

However, standardisation may reduce sensitivity to individual experience.

For example, the same job change could be:

• A welcomed promotion.

• An unwanted transfer.

• A move away from family.

• An escape from an unpleasant workplace.

The standard LCU value may not represent these different meanings accurately.

The SRRS is retrospective

The SRRS normally asks participants to report events that happened during a previous period.

It is therefore a retrospective measure.

The participant must remember:

• Which events occurred.

• Whether they fall within the relevant period.

• Whether a complex experience matches one of the listed categories.

Retrospective reporting may be affected by inaccurate recall.

Applying the SRRS

Consider this example:

During the past year, Oliver married and changed job. A researcher asks him to complete the SRRS.

A developed explanation would state:

• Oliver identifies both events on the scale.

• Marriage contributes 50 LCUs.

• Changing job contributes 36 LCUs.

• The scores are added to produce a total of 86 LCUs.

• This represents the standardised estimate of readjustment associated with the two events.

• It does not necessarily represent how stressful Oliver personally found them.

What the SRRS cannot reveal

The SRRS may show that a person has experienced significant changes, but it does not reveal fully:

• Whether the events were chosen.

• How predictable they were.

• How much control the person had.

• Whether the events were experienced positively.

• What coping resources were available.

• Whether the person had social support.

• The exact physiological effects of the events.

These missing details may affect the validity of the score as a measure of stress.

The Hassles and Uplifts Scale

What is the Hassles and Uplifts Scale?

The Hassles and Uplifts Scale is a self-report measure associated with Kanner.

It records positive and negative everyday experiences over a monthly period.

The version identified in AQA assessment material includes:

• 117 negative events, or hassles.

• 135 positive events, or uplifts.

Examples of hassles include:

• Bad weather.

• Arguments.

Examples of uplifts include:

• Good news.

• Seeing friends.

Each reported hassle is rated using a three-point severity scale:

• Somewhat severe.

• Moderately severe.

• Extremely severe.

What is a daily hassle?

A daily hassle is a relatively minor everyday difficulty that may create irritation, pressure or frustration.

A single hassle may have a limited effect.

However, hassles may become important when they:

• Occur frequently.

• Repeat across several days.

• Accumulate.

• Interfere with important goals.

• Leave little opportunity for recovery.

Examples may include repeated transport problems, arguments or minor practical difficulties.

The explanation of how these experiences produce stress is covered in the accumulation of everyday difficulties [Daily hassles].

What is an uplift?

An uplift is a positive everyday experience.

Examples recognised in AQA assessment material include:

• Receiving good news.

• Seeing friends.

Uplifts are included because everyday life contains positive as well as negative experiences.

However, AQA mark schemes describe the effects of uplifts as unclear. Students should not assume that one uplift automatically cancels one hassle.

How the scale is completed

A participant reports which listed experiences have occurred over a monthly period.

For hassles, the participant rates the severity of each experience.

The researcher may then calculate information such as:

• The number of hassles reported.

• The severity of the hassles.

• The number of uplifts reported.

• Relationships between hassle scores and psychological symptoms.

The scale therefore provides a quantitative record of the participant’s reported everyday experiences.

Frequency and severity

The Hassles and Uplifts Scale recognises that stress may depend on more than whether an event happened.

Two aspects are relevant:

• Frequency, how often hassles occur.

• Severity, how strongly the person experiences them.

For example:

• One minor delay may be rated as somewhat severe.

• Repeated delays affecting important appointments may be rated as extremely severe.

The severity rating gives the participant some opportunity to represent the personal impact of the event.

Evidence associated with the scale

AQA assessment material identifies a correlation between hassles and undesirable psychological symptoms, including anxiety and depression.

The effects of uplifts were described as unclear.

A correlation means that higher hassle scores were associated with more undesirable symptoms.

It does not establish that the hassles caused the symptoms.

Possible interpretations include:

• Hassles contribute to anxiety or depression.

• Anxiety or depression makes people report more experiences as hassles.

• Another factor influences both variables.

The scale measures ongoing experience

A strength of the Hassles and Uplifts Scale is that it can investigate everyday stress occurring over time.

It may capture recurring difficulties that would not appear on a scale of major life changes.

For example:

• Repeated delays.

• Regular arguments.

• Noise.

• Minor work problems.

• Ongoing interruptions.

These experiences may create substantial cumulative pressure even when the participant reports no major life event.

Subjective severity ratings

Allowing participants to rate severity may increase validity because people experience the same hassle differently.

For example:

• Bad weather may be a minor inconvenience for one person.

• It may prevent another person completing essential outdoor work.

The participant’s rating can represent this difference.

However, the word extreme may not mean exactly the same thing to every participant. This can reduce comparability.

Applying the Hassles and Uplifts Scale

Consider this example:

During the past month, Priya has experienced repeated travel delays, several arguments and frequent problems with her computer. She has also received good news about an application and spent time with friends.

A developed explanation would state:

• The travel delays, arguments and computer problems may be recorded as hassles.

• Priya rates how severe she experienced the reported hassles.

• The good news and time with friends may be recorded as uplifts.

• The resulting scores represent her reported everyday experiences over the month.

• The scores do not directly measure her physiological stress response.

Comparing the Two Self-Report Scales

Major events and everyday experiences

The principal difference concerns what each scale measures.

Feature	Social Readjustment Ratings Scale	Hassles and Uplifts Scale
Main focus	Major life events	Everyday positive and negative experiences
Type of stressor	Life changes requiring readjustment	Daily hassles that may accumulate
Number of items	43 life events	117 hassles and 135 uplifts
Scoring	Standard life change unit values	Participant ratings of hassle severity
Time period	A specified period, often the previous year	A monthly period
Positive experiences	Positive and negative life changes may both receive LCUs	Positive events are listed separately as uplifts
Personal severity	Standard event values	Hassles rated as somewhat, moderate or extreme
Main output	Total LCU score	Reported hassle and uplift scores

Standardised versus subjective scoring

The SRRS uses fixed LCU values.

This improves consistency but may overlook how the individual experienced the event.

The Hassles and Uplifts Scale includes personal severity ratings.

This may capture individual meaning more effectively, but different participants may use the rating categories differently.

The contrast is:

• SRRS: greater standardisation.

• Hassles and Uplifts Scale: greater sensitivity to subjective severity.

Neither scoring method is automatically superior. Each involves a trade-off.

Major change versus accumulation

The SRRS assumes that significant events can create stress through required readjustment.

The Hassles and Uplifts Scale reflects the idea that small events may become stressful through:

• Repetition.

• Frequency.

• Accumulation.

• Limited recovery.

A person could therefore receive:

• A low SRRS score but a high hassles score.

• A high SRRS score but relatively few daily hassles.

• High scores on both measures.

The two sources can interact

Major life changes may generate everyday hassles.

For example, changing job may produce:

• A difficult new journey.

• Timetable problems.

• Repeated mistakes.

• Unfamiliar technology.

• Minor disagreements.

The job change would contribute to an SRRS score.

The repeated practical difficulties could contribute to a hassles score.

Using both scales may therefore provide a broader picture of the person’s circumstances.

Similarities between the scales

Both scales:

• Are self-report measures.

• Ask participants about their experiences.

• Produce quantitative data.

• Can be administered to large groups.

• May be used in correlational research.

• Are vulnerable to inaccurate recall.

• Depend on participant honesty.

• May be affected by individual interpretation.

• Do not directly measure physiological arousal.

Evaluating Self-Report Measures of Stress

Strength: access to private experiences

Self-report measures allow psychologists to investigate experiences that may not be observable.

A researcher cannot always see:

• Whether someone experienced an argument.

• How stressful a delay felt.

• Whether a life event occurred several months earlier.

• Whether the person viewed an event as an uplift.

Self-report therefore provides access to information that an observation or physiological recording could miss.

Strength: efficient data collection

Structured scales can be administered to many participants relatively quickly.

This allows researchers to:

• Collect large quantities of data.

• Compare individuals.

• Investigate relationships between stress scores and health.

• Repeat the measurement at different times.

• Conduct longitudinal or correlational research.

This may be more practical than attaching physiological equipment to every participant for an extended period.

Strength: quantitative data

Both scales produce numerical data.

Examples include:

• Total LCU scores.

• Number of reported hassles.

• Severity ratings.

• Number of reported uplifts.

Quantitative data can be:

• Summarised using descriptive statistics.

• Presented in tables and graphs.

• Compared across groups.

• Analysed using inferential statistics.

• Correlated with health or psychological outcomes.

This makes self-report measures useful for scientific research.

Strength: standardisation and reliability

The scales use fixed lists, instructions and scoring procedures.

Standardisation means that participants are asked broadly the same questions and their scores are calculated consistently.

This may improve reliability because:

• The procedure can be repeated.

• Researchers can compare scores.

• Different investigators can use the same measure.

However, a reliable score is not necessarily a valid measure of stress.

A participant may complete the scale consistently while the score still fails to represent their actual stress response.

Strength: useful for ongoing and long-term stress

Self-report measures are particularly useful when stressors occur across long periods.

The SRRS can record events occurring over a specified period.

The Hassles and Uplifts Scale can record everyday experiences over a month.

A short physiological measurement might miss these experiences because it records arousal only during the period in which the equipment is attached.

Past AQA mark schemes recognise that self-report measures may be more useful for ongoing stress and long-term research than physiological measures.

Limitation: inaccurate recall

Both scales depend on memory.

Participants may:

• Forget an event.

• Report an event outside the requested period.

• Misremember how often something occurred.

• Misremember how severe it felt.

• Combine several events into one.

• Interpret an event category incorrectly.

If recall is inaccurate, the resulting stress score may also be inaccurate.

This reduces the validity of the measure.

Limitation: social desirability and self-presentation

Participants may change their answers to present themselves favourably.

For example, a participant might:

• Underreport stress to appear able to cope.

• Avoid reporting arguments.

• Minimise events they find embarrassing.

• Exaggerate difficulties to justify poor performance.

This is a form of self-presentation or social desirability bias.

If participants do not answer honestly, the scale may not measure their experiences accurately.

Limitation: demand characteristics

Participants may work out the purpose of the scale.

They may realise that the researcher is investigating a relationship between stressful events and poor health.

This could influence their answers.

For example, a participant who believes the researcher expects high stress may report more events or rate hassles more severely.

Such demand characteristics reduce the validity of the findings.

Limitation: subjective interpretation

Different participants may interpret:

• The listed events.

• The instructions.

• The rating categories.

• The word “extreme”.

• The meaning of an uplift.

In different ways.

The same score may therefore represent different experiences for different participants.

Subjectivity is not entirely avoidable because stress depends partly on personal interpretation. The limitation is that it makes exact comparison difficult.

Limitation: fixed LCU values ignore individual differences

The SRRS assigns the same value to a life event regardless of who experiences it.

This may fail to account for:

• Whether the event was chosen.

• Whether it was predictable.

• Whether it was positive or negative.

• The person’s coping skills.

• Their personality.

• Their hardiness.

• Their social support.

For example, changing job may be exciting for one person but highly threatening for another.

A fixed value may therefore lack construct validity, meaning it may not measure the individual’s actual experience of stress accurately.

Limitation: vague illness outcomes

A high SRRS score is intended to predict an increased likelihood of poor health.

However, the term illness may cover many different outcomes.

These might include:

• Minor infections.

• Psychological symptoms.

• Cardiovascular illness.

• Other forms of poor health.

If the predicted outcome is not clearly defined, it becomes difficult to assess how accurately the scale predicts it.

AQA’s specimen mark scheme identifies unclear illness outcomes as a limitation of the SRRS.

Limitation: correlation does not establish causation

Researchers may correlate self-report stress scores with illness.

For example:

• LCU scores may be correlated with later health problems.

• Hassle scores may be correlated with anxiety or depression.

A correlation does not prove that the reported stressors caused the outcome.

Possible alternative explanations include:

• Illness caused life changes.

• Anxiety increased the number of reported hassles.

• A third variable affected both scores.

• The participant’s personality influenced reporting and health.

Self-report scales are useful for identifying relationships, but they cannot independently establish cause and effect.

Reverse causality

Reverse causality occurs when the proposed outcome may influence the supposed cause.

For example:

Poor health may cause a person to change job, alter their routine or experience additional daily difficulties.

The illness could increase the self-report score rather than being caused by it.

Similarly:

A person experiencing anxiety may interpret more ordinary experiences as severe hassles.

This makes the direction of the relationship uncertain.

Comparing self-report with physiological measures

Self-report and physiological measures provide different kinds of information.

Self-report measures	Physiological measures
Record reported experiences	Record bodily activity
More subjective	More objective
May cover weeks, months or a year	Can record responses as they occur
Useful for identifying context	Useful for measuring immediate arousal
Depend on memory and honesty	Depend on accurate equipment and interpretation
Often used in correlational research	Can be used during controlled experiments
May measure perceived stressors	May measure general arousal rather than stress specifically

The next lesson examines skin conductance and physiological arousal [Physiological measures of stress].

Self-report is not automatically less valid

It may seem that physiological measures must always be better because they are objective.

However, physiological arousal is not specific to stress.

Increased skin conductance could also reflect:

• Excitement.

• Physical activity.

• Fear.

• Surprise.

• General autonomic arousal.

A self-report can reveal that the person interpreted a particular experience as stressful.

Therefore:

• Physiological measures may be more objective.

• Self-report measures may provide greater insight into personal meaning and context.

Using both methods may provide a fuller picture.

Reliability versus validity

These terms should not be confused.

Reliability concerns consistency.

A reliable scale should produce stable or repeatable results when appropriate.

Validity concerns whether the scale measures what it is intended to measure.

A scale could be reliable but invalid.

For example:

The SRRS may consistently assign marriage 50 LCUs, but this fixed score may not accurately represent how stressful marriage was for a particular participant.

Practical applications

Self-report scales may help identify people who have experienced:

• Numerous major life changes.

• Frequent daily hassles.

• Severe everyday pressures.

This information could be used to:

• Investigate stress-related health risks.

• Identify groups who may benefit from support.

• Examine whether stress-management programmes reduce reported stressors.

• Study changes across time.

However, decisions about an individual should not be based on one questionnaire score alone.

The score should be interpreted alongside:

• The person’s circumstances.

• Their own explanation.

• Physiological information where appropriate.

• Individual differences.

• Other relevant evidence.

Individual differences

Personality and hardiness may affect how people interpret and report stressful events.

For example:

• A person who views change as a challenge may report less stress.

• A person who believes they have little control may rate events as more severe.

• A highly competitive person may expose themselves to more demanding situations.

These differences are developed in behavioural patterns and vulnerability to stress [Personality types and stress] and commitment, challenge and control [Hardiness].

Self-report scores may therefore reflect both:

• The external events experienced.

• The participant’s interpretation of those events.

Overall evaluation

Self-report scales are practical methods for investigating major life changes and recurring everyday experiences. They provide quantitative data, can be administered efficiently and reveal information that may not be observable through physiological recording.

However, they depend on memory, honesty and subjective interpretation. Fixed LCU values may overlook individual differences, while correlations between questionnaire scores and illness cannot establish causation. Self-report measures are most useful when interpreted as estimates of perceived or reported stressors rather than exact, objective measurements of stress.

Planning an extended response

For an extended question on self-report measures of stress, organise your answer around description and evaluation.

Knowledge and understanding

For the SRRS, explain:

• Holmes and Rahe.

• The 43 listed life events.

• Life change units.

• Standardised event values.

• Addition of LCUs.

• The relationship between high scores and estimated illness risk.

For the Hassles and Uplifts Scale, explain:

• Kanner.

• Measurement over a monthly period.

• The 117 hassles.

• The 135 uplifts.

• The three-point severity rating for hassles.

• The relationship between hassles and undesirable psychological symptoms.

• The unclear effects of uplifts.

Evaluation

Develop points such as:

• Access to private experiences.

• Efficient collection of quantitative data.

• Standardisation and reliability.

• Usefulness for ongoing stress.

• Recall problems.

• Social desirability.

• Demand characteristics.

• Subjective interpretation.

• Individual differences.

• Correlation and reverse causality.

• Comparison with physiological measurement.

For a compare question, make direct paired comparisons. Do not write two isolated descriptions and expect the examiner to infer the differences.

Key Words 🔑

Key word	Student-friendly definition	How it may be used in an exam
Self-report measure	A method in which participants provide information about their own experiences, feelings or behaviour	Identify the general type of measurement used by both scales
Questionnaire	A written set of questions completed by participants	Describe one possible format for self-report
Rating scale	A measure requiring participants to select a value or category representing their response	Explain how the severity of hassles may be recorded
Social Readjustment Ratings Scale	A self-report scale measuring major life events requiring readjustment	Describe the 43 events and LCU scoring
SRRS	The abbreviation for the Social Readjustment Ratings Scale	Use after writing the full name once
Life change unit	A standard numerical value representing the estimated readjustment associated with an event	Calculate a participant’s total score
LCU	The abbreviation for life change unit	Use in SRRS calculations
Cumulative score	A total formed by adding several scores	Explain how an overall SRRS score is produced
Readjustment	The change required to routines, roles or circumstances following a life event	Explain what the SRRS attempts to quantify
Hassles and Uplifts Scale	A self-report scale measuring everyday negative and positive experiences	Describe the monthly measurement of hassles and uplifts
Daily hassle	A relatively minor everyday difficulty	Identify a negative event on the Hassles and Uplifts Scale
Uplift	A positive everyday experience	Distinguish positive experiences from hassles
Severity	How strongly a participant experiences an event	Explain the three-point hassle rating
Retrospective measure	A measure requiring participants to remember earlier experiences	Evaluate possible recall errors
Subjective data	Information influenced by personal interpretation or judgement	Evaluate the nature of self-report evidence
Objective data	Information based on observable measurement with less personal interpretation	Compare self-report with physiological measurement
Reliability	The consistency of a measure	Evaluate the effect of standardised questions and scoring
Validity	The extent to which a measure assesses what it claims to assess	Evaluate whether scores accurately represent stress
Social desirability bias	Changing an answer to create a favourable impression	Explain why participants may underreport stress
Demand characteristics	Cues that reveal the purpose of research and influence participant behaviour	Evaluate whether participants may alter their answers
Correlation	A measured association between two variables	Explain how stress scores may be related to illness
Reverse causality	The possibility that the proposed outcome influences the supposed cause	Explain how illness may create life changes
Physiological measure	A measurement of bodily activity, such as skin conductance	Compare objective arousal with subjective self-report

Hints from the Examiner Reports 💡

Examiner hint: Learn the defining features of both scales. For the SRRS, include the 43 life events, LCUs and cumulative score. For the Hassles and Uplifts Scale, include the monthly period, negative and positive events and severity ratings.

Examiner hint: Make comparisons explicit. In the November 2020 examination, knowledge in extended responses was often sound, but clear and direct comparison between self-report and physiological measures was limited. Use words such as whereas, both and in contrast.

Examiner hint: Do not describe two methods separately when the command word is compare. Pair each point directly, such as retrospective reporting versus real-time recording.

Examiner hint: Use precise terminology. A life change unit estimates required readjustment. It is not a direct unit of cortisol, anxiety or illness.

Examiner hint: Distinguish risk from certainty. A high SRRS score indicates estimated vulnerability and does not prove that illness will occur.

Examiner hint: Develop methodological limitations. Do not simply state “self-report is subjective”. Explain that participants may interpret the same event or rating category differently, reducing comparability or validity.

Examiner hint: Keep the command word in view. Examiners have reported that students often describe material when a question requires evaluation or comparison.

Examiner hint: Use specific examples when evaluating individual differences. The June 2022 report noted that students could describe the SRRS effectively but often struggled to develop the subjective nature of life-event experience as a limitation.

Common Mistakes ⚠️

Mistake: Calling the SRRS a physiological measure.

Why this is incorrect:The SRRS asks participants to report life events. It does not record bodily activity.

How to improve:Classify it as a self-report scale producing a numerical LCU score.

Mistake: Saying that an LCU directly measures how stressed a person feels.

Why this is incorrect:An LCU is a standard estimate of the readjustment associated with an event.

How to improve:Distinguish the standard event value from the participant’s personal experience.

Mistake: Forgetting that LCU values are added together.

Why this is incorrect:The SRRS produces a cumulative score.

How to improve:Show the addition clearly in calculation questions and include LCUs in the final answer.

Mistake: Saying that a high SRRS score proves illness will occur.

Why this is incorrect:The score indicates estimated risk. It is not a diagnosis or causal proof.

How to improve:Use language such as “is associated with” or “may indicate increased vulnerability”.

Mistake: Assuming that only negative events appear on the SRRS.

Why this is incorrect:Positive events may also require significant readjustment.

How to improve:Explain why a welcomed event such as marriage may still contribute LCUs.

Mistake: Confusing daily hassles with life changes.

Why this is incorrect:Daily hassles are relatively minor recurring events. Life changes are major events requiring readjustment.

How to improve:Check whether the event is a major change or an everyday difficulty.

Mistake: Saying that the Hassles and Uplifts Scale contains only negative items.

Why this is incorrect:It records both hassles and positive everyday uplifts.

How to improve:Include examples of each when describing the scale.

Mistake: Claiming that uplifts definitely cancel out hassles.

Why this is incorrect:AQA materials describe the effects of uplifts as unclear.

How to improve:State that the scale records uplifts without assuming a simple protective effect.

Mistake: Treating subjective data as automatically useless.

Why this is incorrect:Personal interpretation is important when investigating stress.

How to improve:Explain that subjectivity provides insight into experience but may reduce consistency between participants.

Mistake: Saying that standardisation guarantees validity.

Why this is incorrect:A measure can be applied consistently while still failing to represent the individual’s actual stress.

How to improve:Distinguish reliability from validity.

Mistake: Claiming that a correlation proves that reported stressors caused illness.

Why this is incorrect:Illness may create life changes, or another factor may influence both variables.

How to improve:Discuss reverse causality and third variables.

Mistake: Writing two separate descriptions for a comparison question.

Why this is incorrect:The examiner needs explicit similarities or differences.

How to improve:Use paired sentences, such as: “Self-report measures are retrospective, whereas physiological measures can record arousal in real time.”

Exam-Style Questions ✍️

Question 1

Which of the following is a self-report measure of stress?

A. Skin conductance responseB. Blood pressure recordingC. Social Readjustment Ratings ScaleD. Cortisol analysis

[1 mark]

Question 2

Define a self-report measure of stress.

[2 marks]

Question 3

Describe how the Social Readjustment Ratings Scale is used to measure stress.

[4 marks]

Question 4

A participant reports getting married and changing job during the previous year.

Marriage is worth 50 LCUs and changing job is worth 36 LCUs.

Calculate the participant’s total LCU score. Show your working.

[2 marks]

Question 5

Describe the Hassles and Uplifts Scale.

[4 marks]

Question 6

During the past month, Sana has experienced repeated transport delays, several arguments and frequent problems with her computer. She has also received good news about a university application and spent time with close friends.

Explain how the Hassles and Uplifts Scale could be used to measure Sana’s experiences.

[6 marks]

Question 7

A researcher collects the following results from two groups of participants.

Group	Mean monthly hassle score	Mean anxiety score
Lower-hassle group	19	16
Higher-hassle group	41	29

Explain what the results suggest. Identify one conclusion that cannot be drawn.

[4 marks]

Question 8

Explain one limitation of the Social Readjustment Ratings Scale.

[4 marks]

Question 9

Compare self-report measures of stress with physiological measures of stress.

[8 marks]

Question 10

Discuss self-report measures of stress.

[16 marks]

Answers and Mark Scheme

Question 1

Answer: C

The Social Readjustment Ratings Scale requires participants to report life events they have experienced.

[1 mark]

Question 2

Award up to two marks:

• A self-report measure asks participants to provide information about their own experiences, feelings or behaviour.

• The responses may be recorded using a questionnaire, checklist or rating scale.

[2 marks]

Question 3

Award up to four marks:

• The SRRS contains 43 major life events.

• Each event is assigned a life change unit value.

• The participant identifies the events experienced during a specified period.

• The LCU values are added to produce a total life-change score associated with estimated illness risk.

[4 marks]

Question 4

Award one mark for correct working:

50+36

Award one mark for the correct answer:

86 LCUs

[2 marks]

Question 5

Award up to four marks:

• The scale measures everyday experiences over a monthly period.

• It includes 117 negative events, or hassles.

• It includes 135 positive events, or uplifts.

• Hassles are rated on a three-point scale as somewhat, moderately or extremely severe.

Credit relevant examples, such as arguments, bad weather, good news or seeing friends.

[4 marks]

Question 6

Award one mark for each clear application, up to six marks:

• Sana would identify transport delays as hassles.

• Arguments could also be recorded as hassles.

• Computer problems provide another source of reported everyday difficulty.

• Sana would rate the severity of the hassles.

• The university news could be recorded as an uplift.

• Spending time with friends could be recorded as an uplift.

Credit explanation that the scale records experiences over a monthly period or produces quantitative data.

[6 marks]

Question 7

Award up to four marks:

• The higher-hassle group has a higher mean anxiety score.

• This indicates a positive association between reported hassles and anxiety.

• The pattern is consistent with the suggestion that frequent or severe hassles may contribute to stress.

• The researcher cannot conclude that hassles caused anxiety because the data are correlational. Anxiety might increase hassle reporting, or another variable could influence both.

[4 marks]

Question 8

Award marks as follows:

• One mark for identifying a relevant limitation.

• Up to three further marks for developing its effect on the measure.

Possible answer:

The SRRS gives each life event a fixed LCU value. However, the same event may be experienced very differently by different people. Changing job might be a welcomed promotion for one participant but an unwanted disruption for another. The standard value may therefore fail to represent actual stress, reducing validity.

Other relevant limitations include:

• Retrospective recall.

• Social desirability.

• Demand characteristics.

• Lack of attention to controllability.

• Unclear illness outcomes.

• Correlational evidence.

[4 marks]

Question 9

Indicative content may include:

• Self-report measures record reported experiences, whereas physiological measures record bodily activity.

• Self-report is subjective, whereas physiological recording is more objective.

• Self-report may cover months or a year, whereas physiological measures can record arousal in real time.

• Self-report depends on memory and honesty, whereas physiological measures depend on accurate equipment and interpretation.

• Self-report may explain which event the participant found stressful, whereas physiological measures may show only general arousal.

• Self-report is often used in correlational research, whereas physiological measures can be used experimentally.

• Both can produce quantitative data.

• Both have validity limitations.

• Self-report may not accurately represent experience, while physiological arousal may be caused by something other than stress.

For the highest marks, comparisons must be direct, developed and balanced.

[8 marks]

Question 10

Indicative content may include:

Knowledge and understanding

• Self-report measures ask participants about their own experiences.

• The SRRS is associated with Holmes and Rahe.

• It contains 43 life events.

• Each event has an LCU value.

• LCUs accumulate to produce a total score.

• Higher totals are linked with estimated illness risk.

• The Hassles and Uplifts Scale is associated with Kanner.

• It measures events over a monthly period.

• It includes 117 hassles and 135 uplifts.

• Hassles are rated on a three-point severity scale.

• Hassles are correlated with undesirable psychological symptoms.

• The effects of uplifts are unclear.

Evaluation

• Self-report provides access to private and subjective experiences.

• Structured scales can be administered efficiently.

• They produce quantitative data.

• Standardised procedures may improve reliability.

• They are useful for measuring ongoing or long-term stress.

• Retrospective reporting may be inaccurate.

• Responses may be affected by social desirability.

• Demand characteristics may influence answers.

• Participants may interpret events and rating categories differently.

• Fixed LCU values may overlook individual experience.

• Correlations with illness cannot establish causation.

• Illness or anxiety may increase self-report scores.

• Physiological measures are more objective and can record real-time arousal.

• Physiological measures may lack validity because arousal is not specific to stress.

• Combining self-report and physiological evidence may produce a fuller assessment.

A high-level answer will describe both scales accurately and develop a balanced evaluation using specialist terminology rather than listing generic questionnaire strengths and weaknesses.

[16 marks]