Crime and deviance | AQA A-Level Sociology
Updated: Aug 30
For Specification 7192
AQA A-Level Sociology | Free Revision Notes
Estimated study time: 50 to 60 minutes
Crime and deviance are fundamental concepts in AQA A-Level Sociology. This Crime and deviance A-Level Sociology revision page explains how sociologists distinguish criminal behaviour from the wider category of deviance and why neither can be understood without considering society. These ideas form the starting point for the compulsory Crime and Deviance section of Paper 3 and prepare you for studying social order and social control [Social order and social control], as well as later debates about patterns of offending, power and the criminal justice system.
Learning Objectives 🎯
By the end of this revision page, you should be able to:
Define crime and deviance using appropriate sociological terminology.
Explain the distinction between crime and broader forms of deviance.
Analyse how laws, norms and values influence definitions of behaviour.
Explain why crime and deviance can be understood as socially defined categories.
Apply the distinction between crime and deviance to unfamiliar situations.
Revision Notes 📚
Crime and deviance A-Level Sociology revision: the key distinction
AQA requires students to understand crime, deviance, social order and social control. The specification also requires Crime and Deviance to be studied through the course's core themes of socialisation, culture and identity, and social differentiation, power and stratification.
Crime and deviance are related, but they are not identical concepts.
What is crime?
Crime refers to behaviour that is prohibited by law and therefore defined as a criminal offence.
The important point is that crime has a legal definition. Whether an action is a crime depends on the laws operating within a society.
This means that sociologists do not simply ask whether behaviour is harmful or socially disapproved of. They also examine whether that behaviour has been formally defined as criminal.
The existence of crime therefore involves:
behaviour or an action;
a legal rule defining particular behaviour as an offence;
the possibility of a response from the criminal justice system.
The institutions involved in responding to legally defined crime are examined later in the criminal justice system and other agencies [The criminal justice system and other agencies].
What is deviance?
Deviance is a broader sociological concept referring to behaviour that departs from the norms and values of a society or social group.
A norm is an expectation about appropriate behaviour.
Values are broader ideas about what a society or social group considers important, desirable or acceptable.
Deviance is therefore concerned with social expectations, rather than simply with the law.
Behaviour can be considered deviant because other people regard it as unacceptable even when no criminal law has been broken.
This is the essential distinction:
Crime is defined in relation to law. Deviance is defined in relation to social norms and values.
Crime and deviance compared
Crime | Deviance | |
Main basis of definition | Law | Social norms and values |
Type of rule involved | Formal legal rules | Wider social expectations |
Possible response | Criminal justice system | Social reaction or social control |
Scope | Behaviour legally defined as criminal | A broader range of behaviour regarded as outside accepted norms |
Can definitions change? | Yes, if laws change | Yes, if norms and values change |
The categories therefore overlap, but deviance is broader than crime.
A behaviour may be socially disapproved of without being prohibited by criminal law. This would make it possible for the behaviour to be regarded as deviant without it being a crime.
Recognising this distinction is important throughout the Crime and Deviance course. When you later examine recent patterns and trends in crime [Recent patterns and trends in crime], for example, you need to remember that recorded crime concerns behaviour recognised through legal and criminal justice processes rather than every form of socially disapproved behaviour.
Crime and deviance are related to society
A sociological understanding of crime and deviance focuses on the relationship between behaviour and the society in which that behaviour occurs.
An action does not acquire the label "crime" simply because people dislike it. It must be defined through law.
Similarly, something does not become deviant because it possesses an automatic or universal quality of "deviance". It is considered deviant in relation to the norms and values used to judge it.
This introduces the idea of social construction.
The social construction of crime and deviance
To describe something as socially constructed means that its meaning or classification depends partly on social definitions rather than existing as a completely fixed category independent of society.
Crime and deviance can be approached in this way because their boundaries depend on:
laws;
social norms;
values;
processes of criminalisation;
social reactions to behaviour.
The AQA mark schemes recognise social construction as an important concept within Crime and Deviance. They also recognise that powerful groups may be involved in creating laws and criminalising particular actions.
This does not mean that the behaviour itself is imaginary. It means that the sociological classification of behaviour as criminal or deviant depends on the social rules used to define it.
A simple way to think about social construction
Consider two separate questions:
Has the behaviour broken a law?
This determines whether it falls within a legal definition of crime.
Does the behaviour go against accepted norms or values?
This determines whether it may be regarded as deviant.
These questions are related, but the answers do not always have to be the same.
Definitions can differ between societies
Laws are created within particular societies. Norms and values are also shaped socially.
As a result, definitions of crime and deviance are not necessarily identical everywhere.
This is particularly important when studying green crime [Green crime]. AQA's mark schemes recognise that environmental laws can differ between countries, creating difficulties when deciding what should be recorded as green crime. This demonstrates how legal definitions can depend on the society and legal system being considered.
The same principle applies more broadly to deviance. Social expectations provide the standards against which behaviour is judged, so a sociologist needs to identify the relevant social context before deciding why behaviour is being defined as deviant.
Definitions can change
If laws, norms or values change, the boundaries of crime and deviance may also change.
This follows directly from their social definitions:
a legal change can alter which behaviour is criminalised;
changes in norms and values can alter which behaviour is regarded as deviant;
changes in society can therefore affect how particular actions are classified.
This is why sociologists study crime and deviance as part of wider processes of social change, rather than treating definitions as permanently fixed.
It also becomes important when studying human rights and state crime [Human rights and state crimes], where questions about law, power and the definition of unacceptable behaviour become especially significant.
Who defines crime?
Crime involves more than the existence of behaviour. Someone must have the authority to define particular actions as offences through law.
This makes power relevant to the sociology of crime.
One of AQA's core themes is social differentiation, power and stratification, and Crime and Deviance should be examined in relation to this theme.
A sociological analysis can therefore ask:
Who has the power to create laws?
Which behaviours become criminalised?
Which groups and actions are subject to legal control?
How might the creation and enforcement of rules relate to wider patterns of power?
AQA examination material has explicitly contrasted the idea of shared norms and values with the argument that powerful groups may create laws that criminalise the actions of less powerful groups. This shows why definitions of crime are sociological questions rather than simply legal ones.
Detailed explanations of how societies regulate behaviour are developed in social order and social control [Social order and social control].
Norms, values and deviance
Because deviance is based on social expectations, understanding norms and values is particularly important.
A norm tells people how they are expected to behave. Values provide broader standards about what is regarded as acceptable or desirable.
When behaviour departs from these expectations, it may attract a social reaction.
This means that deviance involves a relationship between:
behaviour → social expectations → social reaction
The same action cannot be understood sociologically simply by describing what happened. You also need to consider the rules and expectations against which people are judging it.
Criminalisation
Criminalisation is the process through which behaviour or groups become defined and treated as criminal.
This concept draws attention to the fact that criminal definitions involve social processes.
It is useful because it encourages sociologists to look beyond the individual offender and ask how crime is defined in the first place.
For example, an examination question may require you to consider the relationship between:
law creation;
power;
social control;
the treatment of particular groups.
These issues become especially important later when examining patterns of crime by social class [Social class and crime], ethnicity and gender.
Why the distinction matters in examinations
A common examination problem is answering a question about crime as though it asks about every kind of deviance, or discussing general deviance when the question requires legally defined offending.
Always identify which concept the question is testing.
If the question says "crime"
Focus on behaviour defined through law, offending or criminal justice processes.
If the question says "deviance"
The scope is potentially broader because it includes departures from social norms and values.
If the question says "crime and deviance"
You may need to recognise both the connection and the distinction between them.
This precise use of terminology matters because AQA examiners repeatedly warn against drifting away from the exact wording of a question.
Key Words 🔑
Key word | Student-friendly definition | How it may be used in an exam |
Crime | Behaviour that is prohibited by law and defined as a criminal offence. | Use when a question concerns offending, criminal law or criminal justice processes. |
Deviance | Behaviour that departs from the norms and values of a society or social group. | Use to explain behaviour that is socially regarded as outside accepted expectations. |
Norm | A social expectation about how people should behave. | Use when explaining why behaviour may be regarded as deviant. |
Values | Broader ideas about what is considered important, acceptable or desirable. | Link values to the standards societies use when judging behaviour. |
Social construction | The idea that a category or meaning is shaped by social definitions and processes. | Use when explaining why definitions of crime or deviance may depend on society. |
Criminalisation | The process through which behaviour or groups become defined and treated as criminal. | Useful when analysing law creation, power and definitions of crime. |
Social control | Processes through which behaviour is regulated within society. | Link definitions of acceptable and unacceptable behaviour to the next stage of the topic. |
Criminal justice system | The institutions involved in responding to legally defined crime. | Use when distinguishing formal responses to crime from wider reactions to deviance. |
Hints from the Examiner Reports 💡
No lesson-specific examiner guidance was identified in the provided reports. However, the reports contain several consistent points about answering Crime and Deviance questions that directly affect how you should use the concepts on this page.
Examiner hint: Keep short answers short and focused. Examiners repeatedly noted that students overwrote 4-mark and 6-mark responses. For an outline point, give a clear identification followed by enough development to explain it. Do not turn a short-answer question into an essay.
Examiner hint: Pay very close attention to the exact wording of the question. Reports have highlighted answers that contained relevant Sociology but did not address the precise issue being asked about. For this lesson, that means distinguishing carefully between crime, deviance and wider discussion of offending.
Examiner hint: In an item-based 10-mark "analyse" question, identify the distinct prompts or "hooks" in the item and develop them rather than simply repeating the item. AQA reports specifically identify undeveloped or recycled item material as a weakness.
Examiner hint: Evaluation needs to do more than place two different views next to each other. Stronger evaluation weighs claims, explains their strengths or limitations and reaches a reasoned judgement.
Examiner hint: Use sociological terminology precisely. The 2023 report emphasised that concepts and theories help give answers structure, but simply saying "some sociologists argue" without developing the sociological idea is much less useful.
Common Mistakes ⚠️
Mistake: Treating crime and deviance as identical
Why this is incorrect: Crime is defined through law, while deviance is the broader concept of behaviour departing from social norms and values. The two categories overlap, but they are not interchangeable.
How to improve: Before answering, ask yourself whether the question concerns a legal definition, a social definition, or both.
Mistake: Assuming deviance must be illegal
Why this is incorrect: Behaviour can conflict with social expectations without being prohibited by criminal law.
How to improve: Remember the basic distinction: law = crime; norms and values = deviance.
Mistake: Assuming crime is a fixed category
Why this is incorrect: Crime depends on what the law defines as criminal. Laws are produced within societies and may change.
How to improve: When analysing definitions of crime, consider the role of law creation, criminalisation and social change.
Mistake: Treating deviance as naturally present in an action
Why this is incorrect: A sociological understanding considers how behaviour is judged against social norms and values. Deviance therefore depends on social definitions.
How to improve: Use the concept social construction and explain which social rule or expectation is being used to classify behaviour.
Mistake: Ignoring power when discussing definitions of crime
Why this is incorrect: The specification requires Crime and Deviance to be linked to power and stratification. Laws do not create themselves, and sociologists can examine who has influence over criminal definitions.
How to improve: Where relevant, move your analysis from "this behaviour is illegal" to "how and why has this behaviour been legally defined as criminal?"
Mistake: Drifting away from the question
Why this is incorrect: Knowing lots about crime does not gain marks if the material does not answer the specific question. Examiner reports repeatedly identify this type of drift.
How to improve: Underline the key concept before writing, for example crime, deviance, social control or criminalisation, and make every paragraph explicitly answer it.
Exam-Style Questions ✍️
Question 1
Define crime. [1 mark]
Question 2
Define deviance. [1 mark]
Question 3
Explain one difference between crime and deviance. [2 marks]
Question 4
Outline two reasons why definitions of crime may be related to the society in which they are created. [4 marks]
Question 5
Outline three reasons why behaviour may be regarded as deviant without being criminal. [6 marks]
Question 6
Read Item A and answer the question that follows.
Item A
A society has legal rules that formally identify some behaviour as criminal. However, people also judge behaviour using wider norms and values. These social expectations do not always correspond exactly with the criminal law.
Applying material from Item A, analyse two reasons why crime and deviance should not be treated as identical concepts. [10 marks]
Question 7
Read the following situation.
In Society X, a particular form of behaviour is strongly disapproved of but is not prohibited by criminal law. In Society Y, lawmakers have formally prohibited the same behaviour.
Explain what this situation demonstrates about the distinction between crime and deviance. [4 marks]
Question 8
Read Item B and answer the question that follows.
Item B
Definitions of unacceptable behaviour are connected to the society in which they develop. Social norms and values provide standards for judging behaviour, while those with the authority to create laws can formally criminalise particular actions.
Applying material from Item B, analyse two ways in which definitions of crime and deviance may be socially constructed. [10 marks]
Answers and mark scheme
Question 1
1 mark for a clear definition referring to behaviour prohibited or defined as an offence by law.
Example answer: Crime is behaviour that is prohibited by criminal law.
Question 2
1 mark for a clear definition referring to behaviour that departs from social norms or values.
Example answer: Deviance is behaviour that goes against the norms and values of a society or social group.
Question 3
Award up to 2 marks for one clearly explained distinction.
A full-mark answer should show that:
crime is defined through law;
deviance is defined through wider social norms and values.
Example answer: Crime involves breaking a law, whereas deviance is broader and involves behaviour that departs from social norms and values.
Question 4
Award 2 marks for each of two developed reasons.
Possible answers include:
Laws are socially created: behaviour is criminal only when it has been legally defined as an offence.
Laws can differ between societies: different legal systems may classify behaviour differently.
Definitions may change: changes in law can alter which behaviour is criminalised.
Power may influence law creation: sociologists may examine which groups have the authority to define behaviour as criminal.
Do not award separate marks for repeating the same basic idea in different words.
Question 5
Award 2 marks for each of three developed reasons.
Possible answers include:
Behaviour may violate a social norm without violating criminal law.
Behaviour may conflict with widely held values without being legally prohibited.
Social expectations can be broader than formal laws.
A social group may regard behaviour as unacceptable even though the criminal justice system does not classify it as an offence.
A one-mark response identifies a valid reason. The second mark requires development showing why this makes deviance broader than crime.
Question 6
For the highest marks, the response should contain two clearly separated and developed arguments, each explicitly connected to Item A.
Indicative content could include:
Reason 1: legal rules
The item states that legal rules formally identify some behaviour as criminal. Crime therefore depends on legal classification, while deviance does not necessarily require a law to have been broken.
Reason 2: norms and values
The item states that people also judge behaviour using wider norms and values. Behaviour can therefore be defined as deviant through social expectations even where it is not defined as criminal.
8 to 10 marks: Two developed applications from the item, accurate understanding of the crime/deviance distinction and clear analysis of why the categories differ.
4 to 7 marks: Some accurate knowledge and application, but one reason may be stronger than the other or analysis may be incomplete.
1 to 3 marks: Limited knowledge, little effective use of the item or mainly descriptive material.
0 marks: No relevant material.
Question 7
Award up to 4 marks.
A strong answer should explain that:
in Society X, the behaviour may be deviant because it conflicts with norms or values, despite not being criminal;
in Society Y, the behaviour is criminal because it has been legally prohibited;
therefore crime depends on legal definition, while deviance depends on wider social expectations;
the example illustrates the social nature of definitions of crime and deviance.
Question 8
For the highest marks, develop two separate hooks from Item B.
Indicative content could include:
Way 1: norms and values
The item identifies social norms and values as standards used to judge behaviour. What is regarded as deviant therefore depends on socially produced expectations.
Way 2: law creation and criminalisation
The item refers to people with authority creating laws. Behaviour becomes criminal when it is formally criminalised, making power and law creation relevant to definitions of crime.
8 to 10 marks: Accurate, developed analysis of two ways, with explicit and effective use of both parts of the item.
4 to 7 marks: Reasonable knowledge with some item application and development.
1 to 3 marks: Limited understanding, undeveloped points or little use of the item.
0 marks: No relevant material.
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