Global environmental governance | Edexcel A-Level Politics
Updated: 3 days ago
For Specification 9PL0
Edexcel A-Level Politics | Free Revision Notes
Estimated study time:Â 50 minutes
Global environmental governance A-Level Politics revision examines how states have attempted to co-operate over environmental problems that cross national borders. For Edexcel 9PL0, you need to understand the role and significance of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the creation and role of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), and how effectively these institutions contribute to environmental governance. This develops your understanding of globalisation and environmental issues [Globalisation and contemporary global issues] and applies your wider knowledge of the UN [The United Nations].
Learning Objectives 🎯
By the end of this revision page, you should be able to:
Define global governance, the UNFCCC and the IPCC.
Explain the origins, role and significance of the UNFCCC.
Explain the creation, role and significance of the IPCC.
Analyse how the UNFCCC and IPCC contribute differently to global environmental governance.
Explain why environmental governance depends upon international co-operation.
Evaluate the strengths and limitations of global environmental governance.
Revision Notes đź“š
What is global environmental governance?
Global governance is defined by Edexcel as a broad and complex process of decision making at a global level. It can also be understood as movement towards political integration between transnational actors in order to negotiate responses to problems affecting more than one state or region.
Global environmental governance applies this process to environmental problems.
Environmental issues are particularly suited to global governance because their effects are not necessarily confined within national borders. Edexcel's Global Politics course therefore treats environmental degradation as one of the major challenges requiring global co-operation.
This connects closely to interconnectedness [The process of globalisation]. If states are mutually dependent and environmental problems cross borders, action by one government alone may be insufficient.
Why environmental problems require international co-operation
A useful concept is the global commons.
Edexcel defines global commons as areas and resources that are un-owned and consequently beyond national jurisdiction.
This creates a political difficulty.
Individual states may make decisions according to their own interests, yet the consequences can affect shared environmental resources and other countries.
Global governance attempts to overcome this problem by encouraging states to:
share information
establish common environmental objectives
negotiate international agreements
assess environmental risks
co-ordinate their responses.
The UNFCCC and IPCC perform different but complementary roles within this system.
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)Â is defined by Edexcel as:
An international environmental treaty negotiated at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992.
The reference to 1992 and the Rio Earth Summit is therefore important factual knowledge.
The UNFCCC represents a major development in global environmental governance because it provides an international framework through which states can address climate change collectively.
The role of the UNFCCC
The central role of the UNFCCC is to bring states together within an international process for responding to climate change.
Pearson mark schemes describe the UNFCCC as part of the process through which major international environmental conferences and agreements developed, including:
Rio
Kyoto
Copenhagen
Paris.
Detailed strengths and weaknesses of these agreements belong in international environmental agreements [Environmental approaches and international agreements], but their existence helps demonstrate the significance of the UNFCCC as an ongoing framework for international environmental co-operation.
Creating a forum for international co-operation
Climate change requires states with different interests and levels of economic development to negotiate with one another.
The UNFCCC contributes by creating a framework within which these states can meet and attempt to agree collective action.
This is politically significant because there is no world government capable of simply imposing one environmental policy on every state.
Instead, international environmental governance relies heavily upon intergovernmental co-operation.
Supporting international agreements
The UNFCCC has provided the wider institutional framework for significant international environmental agreements.
Pearson's examiner materials repeatedly associate the UNFCCC with the development of major environmental conferences such as Kyoto, Copenhagen and Paris.
This demonstrates one major contribution of environmental governance:
environmental problem → international forum → negotiation between states → international agreement
Even where agreements are imperfect, the process itself means environmental problems have become established as issues of global rather than solely domestic politics.
Why is the UNFCCC significant?
The UNFCCC is significant for several reasons.
It recognises climate change as an international political issue
By establishing an international framework, states acknowledge that climate change cannot simply be treated as the responsibility of individual governments acting separately.
Climate change becomes an issue of global governance.
It has brought large numbers of states into environmental negotiations
Pearson's 2023 mark scheme emphasises the very broad international commitment that has developed through UN environmental agreements and contrasts this with greater disagreement in some other areas of global governance.
This participation increases the legitimacy of environmental governance because climate change is addressed through co-operation involving a wide range of states.
It creates continuity
The importance of the UNFCCC is not restricted to one conference.
The development from Rio through later conferences and agreements demonstrates an ongoing process of international environmental negotiation.
This helps make climate change a continuing item on the global political agenda rather than a temporary issue.
The limits of the UNFCCC
The UNFCCC is significant, but significance is not the same as complete effectiveness.
Pearson's indicative material describes the UNFCCC and IPCC as intergovernmental advisory bodies rather than supranational institutions.
This distinction matters.
Intergovernmental governance depends upon states co-operating.
A supranational body would possess greater authority above individual states.
The UNFCCC cannot simply force governments to implement whatever environmental policy it considers necessary.
It depends upon states
Governments retain sovereignty and continue to make many of the final decisions concerning their environmental policies.
This means that the effectiveness of international agreements may depend upon:
whether states accept commitments
whether governments implement them
whether political leaders remain committed
whether governments prioritise environmental protection over other interests.
The next lesson examines these issues more fully through sovereignty and international co-operation [Obstacles and non-state actors].
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)Â is defined by Edexcel as:
A UN body set up as an internationally accepted authority on climate change.
Its role is therefore different from that of the UNFCCC.
A useful distinction is:
UNFCCC = political framework for international co-operation
IPCC = authoritative assessment and information about climate change
The creation of the IPCC
The creation of the IPCC formed part of the development of environmental governance through the United Nations.
Pearson's indicative material places the IPCC within the wider UN environmental system and links its development with the UN Environment Programme.
Its creation is significant because global environmental decision-making requires not only political negotiations between governments but also a shared evidence base about the environmental problem being addressed.
The IPCC helps provide that evidence base.
The role of the IPCC
The IPCC's central function is to assess and communicate information about climate change.
Pearson's 2023 mark scheme identifies several parts of this role:
assessing the impacts of climate change
considering future risks
examining options for adaptation
sharing scientific information with decision makers.
This means the IPCC does not perform the same function as a political summit.
It helps governments and other decision makers understand the nature and possible consequences of climate change.
Why is the IPCC significant?
It provides an internationally recognised source of climate information
The Edexcel definition describes the IPCC as an internationally accepted authority on climate change.
This is politically important because international negotiations require governments to work from some common understanding of the problem.
Without a shared assessment of:
environmental change
potential impacts
future risks
possible responses
international agreement becomes even harder to achieve.
It links knowledge to political decision-making
The IPCC's work is important not simply because reports exist.
Its political significance comes from providing information to decision makers.
The relationship can be represented as:
IPCC assessment
↓
shared information about climate change
↓
governments and international institutions
↓
environmental negotiations and policy decisions
The IPCC therefore contributes to global governance indirectly by informing the political process.
It helps maintain environmental issues on the international agenda
Pearson mark schemes refer to respected IPCC reports as evidence of the increasing international focus on climate change.
Repeated assessment of climate risks can increase political attention and encourage states to continue participating in international environmental processes.
The limits of the IPCC
The IPCC provides information and assessment, but it does not itself possess the power to force governments to act upon that information.
This is a central distinction.
Knowledge does not automatically create enforcement.
A government can accept that an environmental problem exists while still disagreeing with other governments over:
what action should be taken
how quickly action should occur
how costs should be distributed
how environmental protection should be balanced against economic interests.
Pearson's 2022 indicative material identifies precisely this limitation. The IPCC and UNFCCC can produce reports and encourage states to reach commitments, but their intergovernmental character means they lack the ability to impose action directly upon states.
UNFCCC and IPCC compared
Do not confuse the two institutions in an examination.
UNFCCC | IPCC |
International environmental treaty negotiated at Rio in 1992 | UN body established as an internationally accepted authority on climate change |
Creates a framework for international environmental co-operation | Assesses and communicates information about climate change |
Brings governments together within environmental negotiations | Provides information to decision makers |
Connected with the development of international climate agreements | Examines impacts, future risks and possible responses |
Primarily concerned with the political process of environmental governance | Primarily concerned with establishing an authoritative evidence base |
Depends upon state co-operation | Cannot itself compel states to act on its findings |
The two roles are complementary.
The IPCC helps establish what the environmental problem is and what its consequences may be.
The UNFCCC provides a framework through which governments attempt to decide what to do about it.
📌 Exam tip: A good analytical answer should move beyond listing the institutions' roles. Explain why the difference matters for global environmental governance.
How the UNFCCC and IPCC work together
The contribution of global environmental governance can be understood as a process.
Environmental problems cross borders.
The IPCC assesses climate change, its impacts and risks.
This information is shared with political decision makers.
The UNFCCC provides an international framework within which states can negotiate.
International conferences and agreements attempt to translate concern into collective action.
States must then implement environmental commitments.
This process shows both the strength and the weakness of global governance.
Its strength is that knowledge, negotiation and collective agreements can take place internationally.
Its weakness is that implementation still depends heavily upon sovereign states.
How global environmental governance has contributed to global politics
The Edexcel specification requires you to consider the ways and extent to which global institutions address and resolve environmental issues.
Several contributions can be identified.
1. Environmental issues have become firmly established on the global agenda
The growth of international environmental conferences and institutions demonstrates that environmental degradation is now treated as a major global political issue.
Pearson's 2021 material highlights the increasing number and significance of environmental conferences as evidence of growing attention to environmental protection.
This is a significant achievement of governance even if the environmental problem itself has not been completely resolved.
2. States have developed mechanisms for continuing co-operation
The UNFCCC provides an enduring international structure rather than relying upon isolated negotiations.
This creates opportunities for governments to:
negotiate
revise commitments
respond to new information
establish further international agreements.
Global environmental governance is therefore a continuing process, not a single decision.
3. The IPCC provides an authoritative knowledge base
The IPCC contributes by assessing climate change and sharing information with decision makers.
This allows political negotiations to be informed by an internationally recognised body rather than relying entirely upon competing claims by individual governments.
4. Environmental governance has generated broad international involvement
Pearson's 2023 materials emphasise very wide state engagement with UN environmental agreements.
This matters because global environmental problems require participation across many states.
Broad involvement can increase:
legitimacy
political attention
opportunities for co-ordination
pressure upon governments to address climate change.
Why global environmental governance remains limited
The existence of international organisations does not mean environmental problems have been resolved.
Pearson examiner materials repeatedly draw a distinction between widespread commitment to tackling environmental degradation and the inadequacy of state action.
Intergovernmental rather than supranational governance
The UNFCCC and IPCC do not operate as a world environmental government.
They cannot simply impose policies upon sovereign states.
Pearson's 2022 mark scheme describes their lack of enforcement power as an important reason for slow progress on climate change.
This produces a central evaluation:
Global environmental institutions can encourage and co-ordinate, but states ultimately retain much of the power to act.
State interests can obstruct collective action
Governments may agree that climate change is a problem while disagreeing over the response.
States also continue to pursue:
economic growth
development
domestic political priorities
national interests.
This creates tension between global environmental objectives and state-level decision-making.
The detailed disagreements between developed and developing states, responsibility for action and state sovereignty are explored further in obstacles to environmental co-operation [Obstacles and non-state actors].
Environmental governance may produce commitments without sufficient enforcement
International institutions may succeed at bringing states together but struggle to guarantee implementation.
This gives you two different measures of success:
Measure of success | Possible judgement |
Getting states to recognise a shared problem | Relatively successful |
Creating international institutions | Successful |
Producing information and assessment | Significant contribution |
Establishing repeated negotiations | Significant contribution |
Forcing states to implement policy | Much more limited |
Completely resolving climate change | Clearly more difficult |
This distinction is extremely useful in evaluation questions.
Is global environmental governance effective?
A balanced judgement should separate contribution from complete resolution.
The case that it is effective
Global environmental governance has:
established climate change as a major global political issue
created an international treaty framework through the UNFCCC
generated repeated international negotiations
created the IPCC as an internationally accepted authority
provided governments with information about impacts and future risks
encouraged very broad state participation
helped create continuing international environmental agreements.
These developments would be difficult to achieve through individual states acting entirely independently.
The case that it is ineffective
However:
the UNFCCC and IPCC are intergovernmental rather than supranational
the IPCC can inform governments but cannot make them follow its recommendations
the UNFCCC can facilitate negotiations but cannot guarantee state compliance
governments remain influenced by domestic interests and changing political leadership
economic priorities can conflict with environmental objectives
widespread recognition of environmental problems has not necessarily produced action of equivalent strength.
A useful overall judgement
Global environmental governance has been more successful at creating international awareness, information and co-operation than at enforcing environmental action.
The UNFCCC has provided the political framework.
The IPCC has provided an authoritative source of information.
Together, they have made climate change an established issue of global governance.
However, both continue to operate within a system dominated by sovereign states. Their influence therefore depends substantially upon governments converting international concern into national action.
This makes environmental governance important but incomplete.
Realist and liberal interpretations
Edexcel expects realism and liberalism to be applied throughout Global Politics.
Liberal interpretation
A liberal could view the UNFCCC and IPCC as evidence that international organisations allow states to co-operate over shared problems.
Their continued existence supports liberal ideas about:
international organisations
co-operation
complex interdependence
the possibility of global governance.
The fact that states repeatedly participate in environmental negotiations supports the argument that international politics involves more than competition for power.
This links to international co-operation and organisations [Liberalism].
Realist interpretation
A realist would emphasise that states remain the key actors.
The UNFCCC and IPCC cannot compel sovereign governments to implement environmental policies.
Where environmental commitments conflict with national economic or political interests, states may give priority to their own interests.
The limits of environmental institutions therefore support the state-centred approach [Realism].
This theoretical disagreement is valuable in longer questions because it turns institutional knowledge into wider analysis of global politics.
Key Words 🔑
Key word | Student-friendly definition | How it may be used in an exam |
Global governance | A broad and complex process of decision making at a global level. | Use when explaining how states and international institutions respond collectively to environmental problems. |
UNFCCC | An international environmental treaty negotiated at the Rio Earth Summit in 1992. | Use when explaining the international framework for climate negotiations and co-operation. |
IPCC | A UN body established as an internationally accepted authority on climate change. | Use when explaining the role of information, assessment and expertise in environmental governance. |
Global commons | Areas and resources that are un-owned and beyond national jurisdiction. | Use when explaining why some environmental issues cannot easily be solved by individual states. |
Sovereignty | Absolute and unlimited power and authority. | Use when explaining why international environmental institutions cannot simply force governments to act. |
Hints from the Examiner Reports đź’ˇ
Examiner hint:Â Use the UNFCCC and IPCC as part of an argument rather than merely naming them. The 2021 examiner report noted that discussion of their significance was useful where students explained how state engagement with environmental processes demonstrated increased international attention to environmental issues.
Examiner hint:Â Maintain the precise comparison or debate in the question. In 2022, some candidates concentrated on only one element of a multi-part question, while stronger responses brought together the different factors they were asked to assess.
Examiner hint:Â Environmental examples need analysis. The 2022 report praised students who used the IPCC, UNFCCC and environmental summits as evidence within developed arguments rather than simply listing institutions or conferences.
Examiner hint: Distinguish international commitment from effective action. The 2023 examiner report noted that candidates could identify almost universal commitment to tackling environmental degradation but should also consider the perceived inadequacy of action by states.
Examiner hint:Â In 30-mark questions, do not allow strong AO1 knowledge to replace AO3. Pearson has repeatedly emphasised that high-level responses require sustained evaluation, substantiated judgement and a focused conclusion.
Common Mistakes ⚠️
Mistake: Confusing the UNFCCC with the IPCC
Why this is incorrect: They perform different roles. The UNFCCC is an international environmental treaty and framework for political co-operation, whereas the IPCC is an authoritative UN body concerned with assessing climate change.
How to improve: Remember:
UNFCCC = negotiation and co-operation
IPCC = assessment and information
Mistake: Describing the IPCC as an organisation that forces states to cut emissions
Why this is incorrect: The IPCC assesses climate change and provides information to decision makers. It lacks the authority to compel sovereign states to adopt specific policies.
How to improve: Use verbs such as assesses, informs, reports and advises, rather than orders or forces.
Mistake: Assuming international participation proves environmental governance is effective
Why this is incorrect: Bringing states into negotiations is one form of success, but it does not guarantee that governments will implement sufficient environmental policies.
How to improve: Separate:
participation → agreement → implementation → environmental outcome
Success at one stage does not automatically mean success at every stage.
Mistake: Treating the UNFCCC as a supranational government
Why this is incorrect: Pearson's material describes environmental institutions such as the UNFCCC and IPCC as intergovernmental. Their effectiveness depends heavily upon state co-operation.
How to improve: Always connect environmental governance to state sovereignty.
Mistake: Listing Rio, Kyoto, Copenhagen and Paris without using them analytically
Why this is incorrect: Naming conferences demonstrates knowledge but does not explain the significance of the UNFCCC.
How to improve: Use them to demonstrate an argument, for example:
repeated environmental negotiations → continuing international co-operation → greater prominence of environmental governance
Detailed evaluation of the individual agreements belongs in environmental agreements [Environmental approaches and international agreements].
Mistake: Equating information with enforcement
Why this is incorrect: The IPCC can provide authoritative information, but governments must still choose how to respond.
How to improve: Explain the chain:
IPCC evidence → political decision makers → state negotiations → state action
The final stages are not controlled by the IPCC itself.
Exam-Style Questions ✍️
Question 1
Define the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). (1)
Answer:
An international environmental treaty negotiated at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992.
(1 mark)
Question 2
Identify the main role of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). (1)
Answer:
It acts as an internationally accepted authority on climate change by assessing and communicating information about climate change. (1 mark)
Question 3
Explain two ways in which the UNFCCC contributes to global environmental governance. (4)
Indicative answer:
It provides an international framework within which states can co-operate and negotiate over climate change. (2 marks)
It has supported a continuing international process involving major environmental conferences and agreements. (2 marks)
Question 4
Consider the following hypothetical situation:
An international body publishes an assessment of future climate risks and possible adaptation strategies. Governments then use this information during negotiations over a new international environmental agreement.
Explain the different roles being performed by the IPCC and UNFCCC in this situation. (6)
Indicative answer:
The IPCCÂ performs the assessment role by examining climate risks and possible responses and sharing this information with decision makers. The UNFCCCÂ provides the political framework within which governments can negotiate collective action. The example therefore demonstrates how scientific assessment and political co-operation perform complementary functions in global environmental governance.
Question 5
Explain why the intergovernmental nature of environmental governance can limit its effectiveness. (6)
Indicative mark scheme:
Credit developed explanations including:
sovereign states retain substantial control over environmental policy
international environmental bodies cannot automatically impose decisions upon governments
agreements require state acceptance and implementation
governments may prioritise national political or economic interests
changing governments can affect commitment to environmental action
international agreement does not necessarily guarantee effective implementation.
Question 6
Examine the differences between the roles of the UNFCCC and IPCC in global environmental governance. (12)
Indicative mark scheme:
AO1: Knowledge and understanding
Students may explain that:
the UNFCCC is an international environmental treaty negotiated at Rio in 1992
it provides a framework for international environmental negotiations
it has been associated with the continuing process of international environmental agreements
the IPCC is a UN body and internationally accepted authority on climate change
it assesses impacts and future risks
it considers possible responses such as adaptation
it shares information with decision makers.
AO2: Analysis
Students may analyse that:
the UNFCCC performs a primarily political and co-operative role, while the IPCC performs an assessment and information role
the IPCC can provide the common evidence base needed for international political negotiation
neither role alone guarantees environmental action
the institutions are complementary because effective governance requires both reliable assessment and political agreement
their inability to compel sovereign states limits the effectiveness of both.
Higher-level responses should compare the institutions directly throughout rather than describe each separately.
Question 7
Examine the significance of the UNFCCC in developing global environmental governance. (12)
Indicative mark scheme:
AO1: Knowledge and understanding
Students may explain:
the UNFCCC was negotiated at the Rio Earth Summit in 1992
it establishes an international framework for addressing climate change
it facilitates continuing international environmental negotiations
major environmental agreements and conferences developed through this wider process
a very broad range of states has participated in environmental governance.
AO2: Analysis
Students may explain that:
the UNFCCC helped transform climate change from an issue dealt with individually by states into an established subject of global governance
repeated negotiations demonstrate continuing state acceptance that co-operation is necessary
broad participation increases legitimacy
however, the UNFCCC's intergovernmental character limits its ability to impose action
its significance may therefore be greater in agenda-setting and co-ordination than in direct enforcement.
Question 8
Evaluate the view that the IPCC is the most important part of global environmental governance. (30)
Indicative mark scheme:
A strong response should consider the view and the alternative in a balanced way.
Arguments supporting the view may include:
the IPCC is an internationally accepted authority on climate change
effective environmental policy requires an authoritative understanding of environmental problems
it assesses impacts and future risks
it examines possible responses
it shares information with decision makers
its reports help maintain climate change as an important global political issue
common information can make international co-operation easier.
Arguments challenging the view may include:
the IPCC cannot enforce action upon states
knowledge alone does not create political agreement
the UNFCCC provides the political framework within which states can negotiate
international agreements translate environmental concern into political commitments
sovereign governments ultimately implement much environmental policy
environmental governance therefore depends upon institutions, agreements and states rather than the IPCC alone.
AO3 evaluation:
Students should establish a criterion for importance.
If importance means establishing an authoritative understanding of climate change, the IPCC has a strong claim.
If importance means converting concern into international political commitments, the UNFCCC may be more important.
A stronger judgement recognises that neither body can be fully effective independently because environmental governance requires both information and political co-operation.
Question 9
Evaluate the view that global environmental governance has been successful mainly because it has encouraged international co-operation. (30)
Indicative mark scheme:
Arguments supporting the view may include:
the UNFCCC has created an enduring framework for international negotiations
environmental conferences have increased in number and significance
governments widely recognise climate change as an international problem
the IPCC provides information that can support shared decision-making
environmental governance demonstrates that sovereign states can co-operate over a global issue
international institutions have raised the prominence of environmental problems.
Arguments challenging the view may include:
international co-operation does not necessarily produce implementation
intergovernmental bodies lack direct enforcement power
environmental action remains dependent upon states
economic and political interests can undermine commitments
governments may agree on the existence of a problem while disagreeing about solutions
inadequate state action can persist despite widespread international participation.
Overall judgement:
A strong conclusion should distinguish between procedural success and substantive success.
Global environmental governance has made a major contribution by creating international institutions, shared information and continuing negotiation. However, its success in actually resolving environmental problems is more limited because implementation remains dependent upon sovereign states.
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