Informal presidential powers | Edexcel A-Level Politics
Updated: 3 days ago
For Specification 9PL0
Edexcel A-Level Politics | Free Revision Notes
Estimated study time:Â 50 minutes
Informal presidential powers allow US Presidents to extend their political influence beyond the powers expressly established by the Constitution. This Informal presidential powers A-Level Politics revision page examines the electoral mandate, executive orders, national events, the Cabinet and presidential powers of persuasion. These sources of influence build on your understanding of constitutional presidential authority [Formal presidential powers] and help explain why different presidents can exercise the same office with very different levels of effectiveness. Edexcel requires their significance to be assessed with reference to presidents since 1992.
Learning Objectives 🎯
By the end of this revision page, you should be able to:
Define informal presidential powers and distinguish them from formal constitutional powers.
Explain the electoral mandate, executive orders, national events and Cabinet as sources of presidential power.
Analyse the President's power of persuasion, including the importance of presidential characteristics.
Explain why the effectiveness of informal powers varies between presidents and political circumstances.
Evaluate the significance of informal presidential powers with reference to presidents since 1992.
These objectives follow the US presidency section of the revision plan and specification.
Revision Notes đź“š
Informal presidential powers
Informal powers are presidential powers that are not listed in the Constitution but are nevertheless exercised by Presidents.
Edexcel identifies five important areas for this lesson:
the electoral mandate
executive orders
national events
the Cabinet
the power of persuasion, including the nature and characteristics of individual presidents
The specification also identifies the Executive Office of the President as an informal source of power, but this is developed separately in presidential advisers and agencies [The Executive Office of the President].
Informal powers are particularly important because the constitutional principle of separation of powers prevents the President from simply directing Congress. Presidents frequently need other methods of influence to achieve their objectives.
This is why informal power should always be linked to the wider relationship between the presidency and Congressional scrutiny and cooperation [Oversight and relations with the presidency].
Informal powers compared with formal powers
The distinction between formal and informal power is essential.
Formal presidential powers | Informal presidential powers |
Arise from the constitutional position of the presidency | Are not explicitly listed in the Constitution |
Include powers such as the veto and constitutional appointments | Include the electoral mandate, executive orders, national events, Cabinet and persuasion |
Belong to the office regardless of the individual President | Their effectiveness can depend heavily on circumstances and presidential characteristics |
Often involve specific constitutional checks | Can sometimes allow Presidents to act where normal constitutional routes are difficult |
You should therefore avoid treating presidential power as one single thing. A President may have the same formal powers as their predecessor but be much more or less successful in using informal influence.
The electoral mandate
An electoral mandate is the permission given by voters to a winning political leader to govern and act on their behalf.
The Edexcel glossary specifically uses Barack Obama in 2008 and 2012Â as examples of a President receiving an electoral mandate.
How can an electoral mandate increase presidential power?
Winning a presidential election allows a President to claim democratic support for their programme.
A mandate can therefore strengthen the President's political position by allowing them to argue that voters have authorised the policies on which they campaigned.
The mandate is an informal, rather than formal, source of power. Winning an election does not give the President new constitutional powers. Instead, it can make existing political influence more persuasive.
This creates an important distinction:
electoral victory → claim of public support → greater political authority → potentially greater influence
However, an electoral mandate does not remove separation of powers.
Members of Congress are separately elected and have their own electoral mandates. Weak party discipline also means that congressional members are not automatically required to follow the President's programme. Edexcel mark schemes emphasise that the US President cannot directly control individual members of Congress and may have to negotiate with party leaders and individual legislators.
How significant is the mandate?
A mandate is strongest as a political argument, rather than as an independent governing power.
Its importance therefore depends upon other circumstances, including:
whether the President's party controls Congress
relationships between the President and congressional leaders
the proximity of congressional elections
how willing individual members of Congress are to support the presidential agenda
This links directly to changes in presidential effectiveness [Limitations and institutional relationships].
Executive orders
Executive orders are official documents issued by the executive branch that have the force of law and direct federal officials to take particular actions.
They are numbered and recorded in the Federal Register.
Executive orders can be particularly significant when the President cannot secure action through Congress.
For example, Edexcel mark schemes recognise that if Congress refuses to advance a presidential policy, the President may sometimes use an executive order to make the required change without first securing congressional agreement.
Why can executive orders make Presidents powerful?
Executive orders can allow Presidents to:
act without waiting for Congress to pass new legislation
direct the federal executive to pursue presidential priorities
respond quickly where political agreement is difficult
influence policy even during periods of conflict with Congress
Edexcel's 2022 mark scheme described executive orders as giving Presidents an important ability to act independently of Congress and noted that Congress cannot simply reject or amend an executive order in the same way that it considers proposed legislation.
Example: Obama and DACA
The 2024 mark scheme uses Obama and Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA)Â as an example of presidential executive action being used to extend or protect rights where congressional consensus was difficult to obtain.
The value of this example is analytical:
difficulty securing congressional action → use of executive authority → increased presidential ability to pursue policy
It illustrates why executive orders can significantly strengthen the presidency under divided or obstructive political conditions.
Limits on executive orders
Executive orders do not make a President constitutionally unlimited.
The Supreme Court can review executive action and can rule an executive order unconstitutional. Edexcel mark schemes therefore treat judicial review as an important constitutional check on this informal presidential power.
⚠️ Important: An executive order is not the same thing as legislation passed by Congress. The 2023 examiner report specifically identified describing executive orders as legislation as an error.
Another mistake identified by examiners is claiming that Congress can simply revoke an executive order.
National events
The political circumstances surrounding a presidency can significantly affect presidential power.
The specification therefore identifies national events as an informal source of presidential power.
Crises can place the President at the centre of national decision-making. Edexcel mark schemes recognise the President's importance as a national figurehead during crises and identify natural disasters and international conflict as situations in which executive leadership may become particularly significant.
Why can national events increase presidential power?
A major event may:
increase demand for rapid executive action
place greater political attention on presidential leadership
provide an opportunity for the President to establish national priorities
increase the significance of other informal powers, such as executive orders
National events therefore do not give the President a new constitutional power. Instead, they alter the circumstances in which existing powers are exercised.
This is an important evaluative distinction.
Example: the 2008 economic crisis
Edexcel's 2021 mark scheme identifies the 2008 economic crisis as an example of crisis contributing to increases in federal spending and presidential programmes under George W. Bush and Barack Obama.
The example shows how circumstances can expand the practical role of the presidency.
The event itself did not rewrite the Constitution. Instead:
national crisis → increased pressure for federal action → greater opportunity for presidential leadership
This is why examiner reports describe presidential power as something that can ebb and flow according to circumstances.
National events can also limit Presidents
National events should not automatically be described as strengthening the President.
The key issue is how successfully a President responds to the circumstances they face. An event may create an opportunity for leadership, but the effectiveness of that leadership remains dependent on political support and relations with the other branches.
A stronger examination judgement is therefore:
National events can change the political environment in favour of stronger presidential leadership, but the event itself does not guarantee greater presidential effectiveness.
This prepares you for the wider debate over why presidential authority varies in presidential institutional constraints [Limitations and institutional relationships].
The Cabinet as an informal source of power
The specification explicitly identifies the Cabinet as one of the informal sources of presidential power.
Presidents can appoint a significant number of Cabinet members and advisers. Edexcel mark schemes recognise these appointments as an important resource available to the executive.
The Cabinet can therefore support the President's exercise of executive leadership.
However, there is an important structural limitation.
Under separation of powers, members of the US Cabinet are separate from Congress. Unlike UK ministers, they are not elected members of the legislature. This means that Cabinet members do not provide the President with direct control of congressional votes or a built-in network of ministers operating within Congress.
This makes the Cabinet a useful presidential resource, but not a substitute for building support in Congress.
Cabinet and presidential influence
The significance of the Cabinet therefore needs to be evaluated carefully.
How Cabinet may strengthen the President | Why its significance is limited |
Presidents can select senior Cabinet members and advisers | Cabinet members are outside Congress |
It adds to the resources surrounding presidential government | Cabinet membership cannot be offered to members of Congress in return for legislative loyalty |
Cabinet members can contribute to the executive administration led by the President | The President still needs separate congressional support for legislation |
This difference is particularly important when comparing US presidential government with the UK system.
For this lesson, however, the essential point is that the Cabinet strengthens the executive resources available to the President but does not remove the structural independence of Congress.
The presidential power of persuasion
The power of persuasion is one of the most important informal presidential powers.
The Edexcel glossary defines it as the President's ability to use the prestige of the office and other bargaining methods to persuade others to act as the President wishes.
This power matters because the President cannot simply order members of Congress to vote for presidential proposals.
Separation of powers means persuasion and bargaining become essential.
What does presidential persuasion involve?
Presidents may use:
relationships with congressional party leaders
political bargaining
the prestige and visibility of the presidency
support for the priorities of individual politicians
their ability to place issues on the national political agenda
public or media support as leverage in negotiations
The 2020 mark scheme identified the State of the Union address as one way a President may try to influence the political agenda. It also noted that media and public attention surrounding the President can provide additional leverage when negotiating with party leaders.
Persuasion and Congress
The central purpose of presidential persuasion is particularly important in the President's relationship with Congress.
Presidents have no formal power to command individual members of Congress. Maintaining productive relationships with party leaders can therefore be essential to securing support for legislation.
This creates a clear analytical chain:
separation of powers → no presidential command over Congress → need for negotiation → significance of persuasion
This is one reason your understanding of congressional voting pressures [Representation and congressional elections] is useful when studying presidential power.
Persuasion under unified government
Unified government exists when the presidency and both chambers of Congress are controlled by the same political party.
The Edexcel glossary identifies this as an important term within the US presidency topic.
A President may find persuasion more effective when their own party controls Congress because there is potentially greater common ground between the President and congressional leaders.
The 2020 mark scheme suggests that presidential persuasion can be particularly effective in influencing party policy where the President's party controls both chambers.
However, same-party control does not mean automatic obedience. US party discipline is comparatively weak, and individual members of Congress have their own electoral interests.
Persuasion under divided government
Divided government can increase the importance of persuasion while simultaneously making persuasion more difficult.
A President facing an opposition-controlled chamber cannot rely as easily on partisan support.
Edexcel's 2025 mark scheme notes that under divided government Presidents may have to rely more heavily on persuasion to secure approval for legislative proposals or funding.
However, the 2020 mark scheme also emphasises the obstacle created by a united congressional opposition. Opposition parties may pursue their own agenda rather than assist the President.
Therefore:
divided government makes persuasion more necessary, but not necessarily more successful.
Presidential characteristics and persuasion
Edexcel explicitly requires students to examine presidential persuasion with reference to the nature and characteristics of each President.
This means that informal presidential power cannot be explained entirely by constitutional structures.
When comparing presidents since 1992, consider questions such as:
How effectively did the President negotiate with congressional leaders?
How successfully did the President use the prestige of the office?
Did the President maintain useful relationships with their own party?
Could the President obtain support beyond their existing political allies?
Did political circumstances strengthen or weaken their ability to bargain?
You should not simply state that one President was "more persuasive". Explain what effect presidential characteristics had on relationships, bargaining and political outcomes.
Do not misunderstand presidential persuasion
This is an especially important examination issue.
The 2020 examiner report found that many candidates incorrectly described presidential persuasion primarily as persuading the public, media or voters. Examiners stressed that candidates needed a stronger understanding of persuasion in relation to political actors, particularly Congress.
Public and media support can still matter because Presidents may use it as leverage when negotiating with congressional leaders. However, simply giving a speech to voters is not, by itself, a complete explanation of the presidential power of persuasion.
A stronger explanation is:
The President uses bargaining, political relationships and the prestige of the presidency to influence political actors whose cooperation is needed, particularly members and leaders of Congress.
Assessing the different informal sources of power
No single informal source is always the most significant.
Informal source | Why it can be powerful | Why its significance varies |
Electoral mandate | Allows the President to claim democratic authority for their programme | Congress has separate electoral legitimacy and does not have to follow the President |
Executive orders | Allow action without first securing new legislation from Congress | Can face judicial review and constitutional limits |
National events | Can place the President at the centre of national leadership | Their effect depends on events and presidential response |
Cabinet | Expands the resources available to the executive | Cabinet members are outside Congress and cannot deliver congressional votes directly |
Persuasion | Can secure support that formal powers cannot command | Depends heavily on relationships, party control and presidential characteristics |
The strongest overall judgement is therefore that informal presidential power is highly conditional.
Formal constitutional authority remains broadly stable from one presidency to another. Informal power changes much more substantially because it depends upon elections, crises, relations with Congress and the characteristics of individual Presidents.
The 2022 examiner report praised candidates who recognised that presidential power can "ebb and flow" depending on circumstances and who connected divided government and partisanship to the effectiveness of formal and informal presidential powers.
Understanding these changing circumstances will prepare you for the wider debate about presidential effectiveness [Interpretations and debates of the US presidency].
Key Words 🔑
Key word | Student-friendly definition | How it may be used in an exam |
Informal powers | Presidential powers not listed in the Constitution but exercised by Presidents. | Use when distinguishing constitutional powers from other sources of presidential influence. |
Electoral mandate | Permission granted by voters to a successful political leader to govern on their behalf. | Use when analysing how an election victory may increase presidential political authority. |
Executive order | An official executive document with the force of law that directs federal officials to take particular action. | Use when analysing presidential ability to act without new congressional legislation. |
Powers of persuasion | The use of presidential prestige and bargaining to persuade others to support the President's objectives. | Use when analysing presidential relationships with Congress and party leaders. |
Unified government | A situation where the presidency and both chambers of Congress are controlled by the same party. | Use when evaluating circumstances that may affect presidential influence and persuasion. |
Hints from the Examiner Reports đź’ˇ
Examiner hint:Â Be precise about presidential persuasion. The 2020 report found that many candidates wrongly treated it mainly as persuading voters, the media or the public. Focus on bargaining and relationships with political actors, especially Congress.
Examiner hint:Â Use recent examples. Examiners criticised essays that relied only on Clinton and George W. Bush when Obama and Trump provided more contemporary evidence. Examples should support the argument rather than simply demonstrate memory.
Examiner hint:Â Do not describe executive orders as legislation. This factual mistake was specifically identified in the 2023 examiner report. Explain that executive orders direct the executive branch and can be used to bypass the need for new congressional legislation in some circumstances.
Examiner hint:Â Analyse why presidential power changes. Strong responses in 2022 considered political circumstances, divided government, partisanship and the stage of a presidential term rather than assuming every President possesses the same practical power.
Examiner hint: Avoid simply listing presidential powers. Examiner reports repeatedly stress the need to explain the significance of evidence and develop AO2 and AO3 rather than producing a narrative catalogue of presidential actions.
Common Mistakes ⚠️
Mistake: Treating an electoral mandate as a new constitutional power
Why this is incorrect: Winning an election gives a President political legitimacy, but it does not change the formal constitutional powers of the presidency.
How to improve: Explain the mandate as a source of political authority and influence, not as an additional constitutional power.
Mistake: Calling executive orders Acts or legislation
Why this is incorrect: Executive orders are issued by the executive branch. They are not Acts passed through Congress.
How to improve: Define an executive order accurately before explaining its significance. Use phrases such as "allows the President to direct federal officials" rather than "allows the President to pass legislation".
Mistake: Claiming Congress can simply revoke an executive order
Why this is incorrect: Examiner reports have identified this as a factual error.
How to improve: Focus instead on the constitutional limits that are supported by the course, particularly judicial review by the Supreme Court.
Mistake: Defining persuasion as giving speeches to the public
Why this is incorrect: Presidential persuasion concerns bargaining and influencing political actors, particularly members and leaders of Congress.
How to improve: Link persuasion directly to separation of powers: because the President cannot command Congress, they must negotiate for support.
Mistake: Assuming unified government guarantees presidential success
Why this is incorrect: Members of Congress are independently elected and US parties have weaker discipline than UK parties.
How to improve: Say that unified government may create more favourable circumstances for presidential influence, but it does not remove congressional independence.
Mistake: Assuming national crises always strengthen the President
Why this is incorrect: National events change the circumstances in which presidential power operates, but they do not automatically produce successful leadership.
How to improve: Evaluate the President's response and the political consequences of the event rather than treating crisis as an automatic source of increased power.
Exam-Style Questions ✍️
Question 1
Define an electoral mandate. (1 mark)
Answer: Permission given by voters to a successful political leader to govern and act on their behalf.
Question 2
State one informal source of presidential power other than the electoral mandate. (1 mark)
Answer:
Accept one of:
executive orders
national events
Cabinet
powers of persuasion
Question 3
Explain why executive orders can increase presidential power. (4 marks)
Indicative mark scheme:
Credit developed explanations such as:
executive orders allow Presidents to direct federal officials
they can enable presidential action without first securing new legislation from Congress
they may therefore be especially important where Congress refuses to advance presidential proposals
they remain subject to constitutional limitations, including judicial review
Question 4
A President wins an election after campaigning heavily on a major programme of domestic reform. However, the opposing party gains control of one chamber of Congress.
Analyse the likely significance of the President's electoral mandate. (6 marks)
Indicative mark scheme:
A strong response should explain that:
the election gives the President a claim to democratic authority
this can strengthen the President's political argument for pursuing the promised programme
the mandate does not create additional formal constitutional powers
members of Congress have their own electoral legitimacy
opposition control of one chamber can limit the President's ability to convert the mandate into legislation
persuasion and negotiation may therefore become more important
Question 5
A President is unable to persuade Congress to act on a policy priority and instead issues an executive order directing federal officials to change how the policy is administered.
Explain what this scenario demonstrates about informal presidential power. (6 marks)
Indicative mark scheme:
Credit explanation that:
executive orders are an informal presidential power
they can allow the President to act when congressional agreement cannot be secured
this can strengthen presidential independence from Congress
the order is not the same as congressional legislation
executive action remains subject to constitutional scrutiny, including judicial review
Question 6
Analyse how national events may alter the power of a US President. (12 marks)
Indicative mark scheme:
Relevant arguments may include:
crises can increase expectations of presidential leadership
national or international events can place the President at the centre of political decision-making
crises may increase the importance of executive action
the 2008 economic crisis illustrates circumstances associated with increased federal action under Bush and Obama
the effect of events depends on how successfully the President responds
events do not create new constitutional powers
A strong response should analyse how and why circumstances alter practical presidential influence rather than simply listing crises.
Question 7
Analyse the significance of presidential powers of persuasion. (12 marks)
Indicative mark scheme:
Relevant points include:
separation of powers prevents the President from directly commanding Congress
the President therefore needs relationships and bargaining with congressional leaders
prestige, agenda-setting and wider political support may provide leverage
persuasion may be more effective where the President's party controls Congress
divided government can make persuasion more necessary but also more difficult
presidential characteristics and relationships influence effectiveness
Strong responses should keep the focus on persuasion of political actors rather than describing presidential communication with the public alone.
Question 8
Evaluate the view that executive orders are the most significant informal source of presidential power. (30 marks)
Indicative mark scheme:
Arguments supporting the view may include:
executive orders allow Presidents to act without first securing new congressional legislation
they can be particularly important during congressional gridlock
they enable Presidents to pursue policies even during divided government
Obama and DACA can illustrate the use of executive action where congressional consensus was difficult
executive orders can substantially increase the President's practical ability to direct federal action
Arguments challenging the view may include:
executive orders remain subject to constitutional scrutiny and judicial review
an electoral mandate may give a President substantial democratic authority
national events can considerably alter presidential influence and leadership opportunities
presidential persuasion is essential because Congress remains constitutionally independent
Cabinet and executive advisers add to the resources available to the President
the relative importance of each source changes according to political circumstances
For higher-level evaluation:
A strong response should avoid declaring one power permanently superior. Instead, compare the circumstances in which each informal source becomes effective.
For example:
during congressional conflict, executive orders may become particularly significant
where cooperation with Congress is essential, persuasion may matter more
after a strong electoral victory, the mandate may strengthen presidential political authority
during a major crisis, national events may dramatically alter the balance of influence
The strongest judgement should therefore explain that informal presidential power is context-dependent. Examiner reports consistently reward arguments that evaluate how presidential power changes with circumstances rather than simply listing powers and examples.
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