Outline reliabilism as an analysis of propositional knowledge and explain how it can respond to the problem raised by one of Gettier’s original counter-examples.
AQA A-Level Philosophy | Paper 1 | 2026 Predicted Paper | Mark Scheme: Questions 4
Outline reliabilism as an analysis of propositional knowledge and explain how it can respond to the problem raised by one of Gettier’s original counter-examples.
[12 marks]
What is expected in the answer?
This is a 12-mark AO1 question, so students are not being asked to evaluate whether reliabilism is ultimately successful. Outline requires a precise, clearly ordered account of reliabilism, while explain requires the student to develop the relevant Gettier case and show logically how reliabilism is intended to respond to it. AQA defines outline as setting something out clearly in its relevant steps or parts, while explain requires detail, analysis and relevant connections.
The two halves need to be integrated. AQA's 2023 examiner report on the closely comparable 12-marker on Gettier and no-false-lemmas stressed that students needed accurate material on both parts and needed to connect the response directly to the problem exposed by Gettier.
Levels of response
Marks | Descriptor |
10–12 | A precise, detailed and fully integrated response. Reliabilism and the Gettier counter-example are both accurately explained, and the connection between them is made explicit. Philosophical terminology is used precisely and there is little or no irrelevant material. |
7–9 | A clear and logically organised response showing detailed understanding. Both elements of the question are addressed and linked, although there may be some minor lack of precision, detail or integration. |
4–6 | A largely correct and coherent response. Relevant logical links are made, but there may be gaps, imprecision or insufficient integration between reliabilism and the Gettier problem. |
1–3 | Some relevant knowledge is shown, but points are fragmented, insufficiently precise or poorly connected. One side of the question may be largely absent. |
0 | Nothing written worthy of credit. |
This follows AQA's established levels for a 12-mark AO1 Philosophy question.
Indicative content
Reliabilism
Students may explain that the traditional tripartite account defines propositional knowledge as justified true belief:
p is true
S believes that p
S is justified in believing that p.
Gettier's counter-examples challenge the claim that these three conditions are jointly sufficient for knowledge.
Reliabilism is one of AQA's specified post-Gettier alternatives. It replaces justification with reliable belief formation, giving the analysis R + T + B.
According to reliabilism:
p is true
S believes that p
S's belief that p is produced by a reliable cognitive process.
A reliable cognitive process is one which has a tendency to produce true beliefs rather than false beliefs. AQA's previous mark schemes have accepted examples such as perception, memory, testimony and introspection when these processes operate reliably.
The important difference is therefore:
JTB: Is the belief justified?
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