Personality and Social Influences on Addiction | AQA A-Level Psychology Revision

Q: Outline two ways in which family members may socially influence addictive behaviour. [4 marks]

#### Modelling - The child observes a family member performing the addictive behaviour. - The behaviour becomes available for imitation. #### Vicarious reinforcement - The child observes the family member apparently receiving pleasure, relaxation or social reward. - The observed consequence increases the likelihood of imitation.

Revision Notes

Aug 7

31 min read

Updated: Sep 26

For 7182 specification, first teach in September 2025

AQA A-Level Psychology | Free Revision Notes

Estimated study time: 65 to 80 minutes

exam questions by topic 👇

Personality and social influences on addiction A-Level Psychology revision examines why some people may be more vulnerable to addiction because of their individual characteristics and social environment. Traits such as impulsivity, sensation seeking and neuroticism may increase risk, while families and peers can model, normalise and reinforce addictive behaviour.

You will learn how individual and social factors differ, how they may interact and why neither provides a complete explanation by itself. AQA requires personality and social influences as risk factors in the development of addiction.

Learning Objectives 🎯

By the end of this revision page, you should be able to:

Define personality and social risk factors.
Explain how impulsivity, sensation seeking and neuroticism may increase addiction risk.
Explain Cloninger’s personality dimensions at the level required for AQA.
Explain how family socialisation, modelling and reinforcement may influence addiction.
Explain how peer pressure, conformity and social identity may increase risk.
Apply individual and social risk factors to unfamiliar scenarios.
Compare individual and social explanations of addiction.
Evaluate personality and social risk factors using evidence, methodological issues and interactionism.

Revision Notes 📚

Personality and Social Influences on Addiction A-Level Psychology Revision Focus

A risk factor is a biological, psychological or environmental characteristic that increases the likelihood of addiction.

Risk factors do not:

Guarantee that addiction will develop.
Operate identically in every person.
Provide a diagnosis.
Remove all individual choice.
Necessarily act independently.

The June 2025 AQA mark scheme identifies risk factors as biological, personality or environmental factors that increase the chance of developing addictive behaviour. Examples include neuroticism, impulsivity, sensation seeking, stress and family or peer-group influence.

Individual and Social Risk Factors

This lesson focuses on two broad categories.

Individual risk factors

These are characteristics located mainly within the person.

Examples include:

Personality traits.
Impulsivity.
Sensation seeking.
Neuroticism.
Reward dependence.
Low self-control.
Low self-efficacy.

Social risk factors

These arise through relationships and social environments.

Examples include:

Family modelling.
Peer modelling.
Social approval.
Vicarious reinforcement.
Direct reinforcement.
Conformity.
Group norms.
Social identity.
Access to addictive substances or activities.

The distinction is useful, but the factors often interact.

For example:

A sensation-seeking person may be especially attracted to a peer group that rewards risky gambling.

Personality as a Risk Factor

Personality refers to relatively enduring patterns of thought, emotion and behaviour that distinguish one person from another.

A personality risk factor does not directly cause addiction.

Instead, it may influence:

Whether the person experiments.
How rewarding the activity feels.
How they respond to stress.
Their ability to delay gratification.
Their response to social approval.
Their persistence despite negative consequences.
Their ability to resist cravings.
Their likelihood of relapsing.

The broad process may be:

Personality trait → greater exposure or stronger reinforcement → repeated behaviour → increased addiction risk

An Addiction-Prone Personality

Some psychologists have proposed the idea of an addiction-prone personality, sometimes shortened to APP.

This suggests that a combination of characteristics may make a person generally vulnerable to addictive behaviours.

AQA’s June 2022 mark scheme recognises Anderson’s addiction-prone personality as relevant material, although the supplied AQA documents do not give one fixed diagnostic profile.

It is therefore safer to discuss particular supported traits rather than claim that all addicted people possess one universal personality type.

Relevant characteristics may include:

Impulsivity.
Sensation seeking.
Neuroticism.
Psychoticism.
Novelty seeking.
Reward dependence.
Low self-control.

Impulsivity

What Is Impulsivity?

Impulsivity is a tendency to act quickly without fully considering future consequences.

An impulsive person may:

Seek immediate rewards.
Find waiting difficult.
Make rapid decisions.
Give limited consideration to long-term harm.
Struggle to inhibit an urge.
Act before evaluating alternatives.

AQA’s June 2025 mark scheme explicitly identifies impulsivity as a personality risk factor for addiction.

Impulsivity and Initiation

Impulsivity may increase the likelihood of trying an addictive substance or activity.

For example, the person may:

Accept a cigarette without considering health consequences.
Place a large bet without considering financial loss.
Join an online gambling session immediately.
Use a substance when it becomes available.
Follow a peer’s suggestion without reflecting.

The immediate opportunity becomes more influential than the delayed risk.

Impulsivity and Maintenance

Impulsivity may also maintain addiction.

The person may experience a craving and act before:

Using a coping strategy.
Considering previous harm.
Contacting support.
Waiting for the urge to decrease.
Thinking about long-term goals.

For example:

A person attempting to stop gambling receives an advertisement and immediately places a bet before considering the consequences.

Impulsivity and Delayed Consequences

Many consequences of addiction are delayed.

These may include:

Ill health.
Debt.
Relationship problems.
Loss of employment.
Dependence.
Withdrawal.
Academic difficulties.

The addictive reward may be immediate.

Examples include:

Nicotine-related pleasure.
Excitement from a bet.
Social approval.
Temporary stress relief.

An impulsive person may place greater weight on the immediate reward than on the delayed cost.

Applying Impulsivity

Max repeatedly promises not to gamble. When he sees a betting opportunity, he places a large bet immediately and only considers the possible financial consequences afterwards.

This is consistent with impulsivity because:

The decision is rapid.
Immediate reward dominates.
Future harm is considered too late.
Behavioural inhibition appears limited.

Impulsivity increases vulnerability but does not prove that Max will develop or maintain an addiction.

Sensation Seeking

What Is Sensation Seeking?

Sensation seeking is the tendency to seek novel, varied, intense or exciting experiences.

A sensation-seeking person may:

Become bored easily.
Enjoy risk.
Seek high levels of stimulation.
Prefer novel experiences.
Pursue intense rewards.
Accept potentially harmful consequences for excitement.

AQA identifies sensation seeking as a specific personality risk factor in addiction.

Sensation Seeking and Substance Use

An addictive substance may provide:

A novel experience.
Intense physical sensations.
Excitement.
Social stimulation.
A feeling of risk.
Relief from boredom.

The person may therefore be more likely to experiment and repeat the behaviour.

Sensation Seeking and Gambling

Gambling may be especially appealing because it includes:

Uncertainty.
Risk.
Anticipation.
Competition.
Possible financial reward.
Rapid emotional changes.

A sensation seeker may increase:

The size of bets.
The riskiness of games.
The length of gambling sessions.
The number of gambling activities.

This may contribute to tolerance, where increasingly intense behaviour is required to obtain the previous level of excitement.

Applying Sensation Seeking

Imani says that ordinary activities feel boring. She enjoys the uncertainty of online gambling and has gradually moved from small bets to increasingly risky ones.

Application:

Boredom suggests a high need for stimulation.
Uncertainty provides excitement.
Risky gambling satisfies sensation seeking.
Increasing stakes may reflect both sensation seeking and tolerance.
The personality trait makes gambling more attractive but does not make addiction inevitable.

Neuroticism

What Is Neuroticism?

Neuroticism is a personality dimension associated with emotional instability and greater sensitivity to negative emotions.

A person high in neuroticism may experience:

Anxiety.
Worry.
Irritability.
Low mood.
Emotional reactivity.
Difficulty recovering after stress.
Greater sensitivity to threat.

The June 2022 AQA mark scheme identifies links between neuroticism and drug dependency and specifically between neuroticism and nicotine addiction.

Neuroticism and Negative Reinforcement

A person high in neuroticism may use an addictive substance or behaviour to reduce unpleasant emotions.

The process might be:

The person experiences anxiety or distress.
Smoking, drinking or gambling provides temporary relief.
The unpleasant emotional state decreases.
Relief negatively reinforces the addictive behaviour.
The behaviour becomes more likely during future distress.
Psychological dependence may develop.

The person learns:

“This behaviour helps me cope.”

Neuroticism and Smoking

A person may smoke because nicotine appears to:

Reduce anxiety.
Provide a pause from stress.
Create a familiar coping ritual.
Remove withdrawal-related irritability.

The relief may be temporary, and repeated smoking may later create further dependence and withdrawal.

Neuroticism and Behavioural Addiction

A person may use gambling, gaming or another activity to:

Escape worries.
Avoid difficult emotions.
Distract themselves.
Feel temporary excitement rather than low mood.

The behaviour may become psychologically important because the person believes it is needed for emotional regulation.

Applying Neuroticism

Whenever Amara feels anxious, she gambles online because it distracts her from her worries. She now believes that gambling is the only way she can relax.

Application:

Frequent anxiety is consistent with neuroticism.
Gambling provides temporary emotional relief.
Removal of anxiety acts as negative reinforcement.
The belief that gambling is necessary indicates psychological dependence.
Neuroticism may therefore increase vulnerability through maladaptive coping.

Psychoticism

What Is Psychoticism?

Within personality theory, psychoticism is associated with characteristics such as:

Impulsivity.
Tough-mindedness.
Hostility.
Low empathy.
Disregard for social conventions.

It is not the same as having psychosis.

AQA’s June 2022 mark scheme identifies a relationship between psychoticism and drug dependency as relevant personality-risk content.

Psychoticism and Addiction Risk

A person high in psychoticism may be:

Less concerned about social disapproval.
More willing to break rules.
More impulsive.
Less influenced by health warnings.
More likely to belong to unconventional peer groups.

These characteristics could increase:

Experimentation.
Risky consumption.
Persistence despite harm.
Resistance to family or social pressure to stop.

However, psychoticism does not describe every addicted person and is unlikely to operate alone.

Cloninger’s Three Personality Dimensions

AQA’s June 2022 mark scheme identifies three dimensions proposed by Cloninger:

Novelty seeking.
Harm avoidance.
Reward dependence.

These dimensions can be used to explain different pathways to addiction.

Novelty Seeking

Novelty seeking involves a strong response to new or rewarding stimuli.

A person high in novelty seeking may:

Seek unfamiliar experiences.
Become bored easily.
Act impulsively.
Explore risky activities.
Respond strongly to possible rewards.

This overlaps with sensation seeking.

Possible addiction pathway:

Novelty seeking → experimentation → repeated exposure → reinforcement → increased addiction risk

Harm Avoidance

Harm avoidance involves sensitivity to possible punishment, threat or unpleasant outcomes.

A person high in harm avoidance may:

Worry easily.
Avoid uncertainty.
Experience anxiety.
Respond strongly to negative events.

Such a person might use an addictive activity to:

Escape anxiety.
Avoid emotional discomfort.
Reduce stress temporarily.

The relationship is not completely straightforward.

High harm avoidance might also protect against experimentation because the person fears negative consequences.

Its effect may therefore depend on the context and other traits.

Reward Dependence

Reward dependence involves strong responsiveness to rewards, particularly social approval.

A person high in reward dependence may be strongly influenced by:

Praise.
Acceptance.
Group membership.
Approval from friends.
Social recognition.

This may increase addiction risk when:

Peers reward smoking.
Gambling produces social status.
Group participation is important.
Refusal threatens social belonging.

Reward dependence creates a clear link between personality and social influence.

The Dimensions May Combine

One person might be:

High in novelty seeking.
High in reward dependence.
Low in concern for long-term harm.

That person may:

Try an addictive behaviour for stimulation.
Receive approval from friends.
Repeat the behaviour.
Develop dependence.

Another person might be high in harm avoidance and use the behaviour mainly to reduce anxiety.

The same addiction can therefore develop through different personality pathways.

Self-Control

What Is Self-Control?

Self-control is the ability to regulate impulses and delay immediate rewards.

A person with lower self-control may find it difficult to:

Resist cravings.
Delay gratification.
Follow a quitting plan.
Avoid high-risk situations.
Continue treatment.
Stop after a small amount.
Think about long-term consequences.

Low self-control overlaps with impulsivity but is not identical.

Impulsivity concerns acting rapidly.
Self-control concerns regulating behaviour over time.

Self-Control and Relapse

During withdrawal, a person may experience:

Craving.
Irritability.
Anxiety.
Restlessness.

Low self-control may increase the likelihood of responding immediately by returning to the addictive behaviour.

However, relapse also depends on:

Cue exposure.
Social support.
Stress.
Treatment.
Availability.

Self-Efficacy

What Is Self-Efficacy?

Self-efficacy is a person’s belief in their ability to perform a behaviour successfully.

In addiction, it concerns beliefs such as:

“I can resist a cigarette.”
“I can cope with stress without gambling.”
“I can avoid a relapse.”
“I can complete treatment.”

The AQA specimen mark scheme accepts low self-efficacy as a possible personality-related risk factor where an individual repeatedly fails to stop smoking.

Low Self-Efficacy and Addiction

A person with low self-efficacy may:

Expect to fail.
Avoid attempting change.
Give up after one lapse.
Feel unable to resist peer pressure.
Interpret craving as uncontrollable.
Depend heavily on external support.

For example:

“There is no point trying to stop because I always fail.”

This belief may reduce persistence.

Self-Efficacy Is Not a Fixed Personality Trait

Self-efficacy can change through:

Successful experience.
Skills training.
Social support.
Therapy.
Observing other people succeed.
Gradual goal-setting.

It is therefore an individual risk factor but not necessarily a stable inherited characteristic.

Antisocial Personality Characteristics

The June 2025 mark scheme recognises combinations of traits associated with antisocial personality disorder as a possible addiction risk factor.

Relevant characteristics might include:

Impulsivity.
Rule-breaking.
Irresponsibility.
Limited concern for consequences.
Risk taking.

These may increase exposure to addictive substances or risky behaviours.

However:

Addiction should not be equated with antisocial personality disorder.
Most people with addiction do not necessarily have the disorder.
A diagnosis should not be inferred from one or two traits.
Personality characteristics remain risk factors rather than guarantees.

Social Influences on Addiction

Social influences operate through:

Family.
Friends.
Peer groups.
Social norms.
Modelling.
Reinforcement.
Conformity.
Social identity.
Access and opportunity.

AQA’s June 2022 mark scheme emphasises family socialisation through modelling and vicarious reinforcement, together with peer pressure, social identity and conformity.

Family Influence

Family Socialisation

Socialisation is the process through which people learn the values, expectations and behaviour of their social group.

Within a family, a child may learn:

Whether smoking is normal.
Whether gambling is viewed positively.
How adults cope with stress.
Whether addictive behaviour receives approval.
Which substances are easily available.
Whether health warnings are taken seriously.

Family influence may occur through:

Observation.
Imitation.
Identification.
Direct reinforcement.
Vicarious reinforcement.
Communication of attitudes.
Access.

Modelling

Modelling occurs when a person observes another individual’s behaviour.

A child who repeatedly sees a parent smoke may learn:

How smoking is performed.
When cigarettes are used.
That smoking is an ordinary adult behaviour.
That smoking accompanies stress or social interaction.

Observation alone does not guarantee imitation.

Imitation is more likely when the model is:

Admired.
Similar to the observer.
Emotionally important.
High in status.
Seen to receive rewards.

Identification

Identification occurs when a person feels psychologically connected with a model and wishes to be like them.

Parents and older siblings may be influential because they are:

Familiar.
Emotionally significant.
Powerful.
Trusted.
Part of the person’s developing identity.

For example:

A young person may imitate an admired older sibling’s smoking because it is associated with maturity and group membership.

Vicarious Reinforcement

Vicarious reinforcement occurs when a person observes someone else being rewarded for a behaviour.

A child might observe a parent smoking and apparently receiving:

Relaxation.
Social interaction.
A break from work.
Reduced stress.
Approval from other smokers.

The observer learns:

Smoking produces desirable consequences.

The likelihood of imitation may increase.

Direct Reinforcement

A person may also receive rewards directly.

For example:

Friends praise them for joining a gambling session.
A family member gives them money after a win.
Smoking leads to inclusion in a social group.
A parent treats early substance use as amusing.

These consequences make the behaviour more likely to be repeated.

Family Norms

A norm is an expectation about acceptable behaviour.

A family may communicate norms such as:

“Everyone in this family smokes.”
“Gambling is harmless entertainment.”
“Drinking is the normal way to celebrate.”
“Using substances is the best way to manage stress.”

Repeated exposure can lead the person to view the behaviour as ordinary.

Availability and Access

Family behaviour may make an addictive substance or activity more accessible.

For example:

Cigarettes are present in the home.
Gambling applications are used openly.
Family members provide money for betting.
The child is taken to gambling environments.
Substance use is not monitored.

Greater access increases opportunities for initiation.

Family Conflict and Stress

Family experiences may also increase stress.

Examples include:

Conflict.
Inconsistent parenting.
Abuse.
Separation.
Financial pressure.
Lack of emotional support.

The person may use an addictive substance or behaviour to escape or regulate distress.

The June 2022 mark scheme includes chronic stress and negative life events as addiction risks because addictive behaviour may provide temporary relief.

Applying Family Influence

Ava’s parents both smoke. She often sees them smoke when they are stressed and hears them describe cigarettes as the best way to calm down. Cigarettes are easily available in the house.

Application:

Her parents model smoking.
Ava may identify with them.
She observes apparent stress relief, which is vicarious reinforcement.
The family communicates a pro-smoking norm.
Availability increases the opportunity to experiment.
Smoking may later be directly reinforced if it reduces Ava’s stress.
The family pattern may also suggest genetic vulnerability, so biological and social factors are difficult to separate.

Peer Influence

Why Peers Matter

Peer groups can influence:

Which behaviours are attempted.
Whether addiction appears normal.
Access to substances or gambling.
Expectations about rewards.
Willingness to take risks.
Decisions to continue or stop.

Peers may be especially influential during periods when:

Belonging is important.
Identity is developing.
Parental influence is decreasing.
The person spends substantial time with friends.
Addictive behaviour is part of group activity.

Peer Modelling

A person may observe friends:

Smoking.
Gambling.
Drinking.
Gaming for long periods.
Receiving social rewards.

If the behaviour appears rewarding, imitation becomes more likely.

Direct Peer Pressure

Direct peer pressure involves an explicit request or demand.

Examples include:

“Have a cigarette.”
“Place a bet with us.”
“Everyone is playing tonight.”
“Do not be boring.”
“Prove you can handle it.”

The person may comply to gain approval or avoid rejection.

Indirect Peer Pressure

Peer influence does not always involve a direct request.

The person may observe that:

Most group members smoke.
Gamblers receive admiration.
Refusal leads to exclusion.
Participation is part of social life.

They may conform without anyone explicitly instructing them.

Normative Social Influence

Normative social influence occurs when a person conforms to gain approval or avoid social rejection.

In addiction:

The peer group approves of the behaviour.
The person wants acceptance.
They participate publicly.
Participation receives social reward.
The behaviour may become repeated and internally accepted.

For example:

A person joins an online gaming session because they do not want to be left out of the friendship group.

Compliance and Internalisation

Peer influence may initially produce compliance.

The person participates publicly to gain approval but privately disagrees.

With repeated involvement, the group attitude may become internalised.

The person begins to believe:

Smoking is harmless.
Gambling is exciting.
Long gaming sessions are normal.
Refusal is unnecessary.

The behaviour may then continue even when the group is absent.

Social Identity

Social identity is the part of a person’s self-concept derived from group membership.

A person may begin to think:

“We are smokers.”
“We are serious gamers.”
“Our group takes risks.”
“Betting is what we do together.”

Addictive behaviour may become a symbol of:

Belonging.
Loyalty.
Status.
Shared identity.

Stopping may then feel like rejecting the group.

Peer Reinforcement

Peers may reinforce addictive behaviour through:

Praise.
Laughter.
Attention.
Status.
Inclusion.
Shared winnings.
Competition.
Continued invitations.

Refusal may be socially punished through:

Ridicule.
Exclusion.
Loss of status.
Accusations of disloyalty.

Applying Peer Influence

Oscar’s close friends gamble online every evening. They congratulate members who place risky bets and tease anyone who leaves early. Oscar begins gambling because he does not want to be excluded.

Application:

His friends model gambling.
Praise provides vicarious and direct reinforcement.
Teasing creates normative pressure.
Oscar conforms to avoid rejection.
Gambling is part of the group’s social identity.
Repeated sessions increase exposure and opportunity.
The social environment raises risk but does not guarantee addiction.

Stress as an Environmental Risk Factor

Although the lesson centres on personality and social influences, stress often appears alongside them in AQA questions about addiction risk.

What Is Stress?

Stress is a response to demands perceived as exceeding a person’s coping resources.

Possible sources include:

Work pressure.
Family conflict.
Financial difficulty.
Trauma.
Bereavement.
Loneliness.
Academic pressure.
Negative life events.
Chronic daily demands.

Stress and Addiction

An addictive substance or behaviour may produce:

Temporary pleasure.
Escape.
Distraction.
Relief from anxiety.
Reduced awareness of problems.

The process may be:

The person experiences stress.
They use a substance or perform a behaviour.
Stress temporarily decreases.
Relief negatively reinforces the behaviour.
The behaviour becomes a preferred coping response.
Psychological dependence may develop.

AQA’s June 2022 mark scheme includes chronic stress and negative life events as risk factors and notes that addictive substances may provide temporary relief.

Stress Is Not Purely Social

Stress can involve:

Environmental events.
Cognitive appraisal.
Personality.
Physiological processes.

It is therefore best treated as an interacting risk rather than simply placing it entirely within the person or environment.

Stress and Personality Interaction

A highly neurotic person may:

Experience events as more threatening.
Feel distress more intensely.
Recover more slowly.
Rely more heavily on an addictive coping response.

This shows that personality can influence the effect of an environmental stressor.

Social Influences and Initiation

Social factors may be particularly useful in explaining initiation, meaning how the addictive behaviour begins.

Family and peers can influence:

First exposure.
Availability.
Attitudes.
Modelling.
Expectations.
Initial rewards.

For example:

A person may smoke their first cigarette because friends offer it and approve of participation.

Social influence provides an explanation of how the person encounters and tries the behaviour.

Social Influences and Maintenance

Social factors may also maintain addiction.

Maintenance may occur because:

Friends continue to model the behaviour.
Group meetings contain addiction-related cues.
Participation produces social approval.
The person fears losing group membership.
Family members undermine quitting attempts.
The addictive behaviour remains easily available.

For example:

A person attempting to stop smoking continues spending breaks with colleagues who smoke and repeatedly offers them cigarettes.

Social Influences and Relapse

A return to the previous social environment may trigger relapse.

This might involve:

Seeing peers smoke.
Entering a gambling venue.
Receiving a group invitation.
Experiencing social pressure.
Being reminded of previous rewards.

These environmental cues are examined more fully in learning theory and cue reactivity in nicotine addiction.

Protective Social Influences

Social influences can reduce addiction risk as well as increase it.

Protective influences may include:

Parents who model healthy coping.
Friends who reject addictive behaviour.
Support during stress.
Clear anti-smoking norms.
Limited access.
Encouragement during treatment.
Peers who support abstinence.
Alternative social activities.

For example:

A sensation-seeking person may channel their need for stimulation into sport within a peer group that rejects substance use.

Social influence is not automatically harmful.

Comparing Individual and Social Risk Factors

Location of the Risk

Individual risk factors	Social risk factors
Located mainly within the person	Arise through relationships and social environments
Include personality and self-control	Include family, peers and group norms
Relatively enduring	May change as social circumstances change
Explain differences between people in the same situation	Explain similarities among people in the same group
May affect response to rewards or stress	Affect exposure, access, modelling and approval

How They Operate

Individual factors may influence:

Reward sensitivity.
Emotional regulation.
Impulse control.
Attraction to risk.
Ability to resist cravings.

Social factors may influence:

Opportunity.
Attitudes.
Behavioural models.
Group acceptance.
Reinforcement.
Access.

Initiation

Social factors may be particularly effective at explaining initiation because they provide:

Exposure.
Availability.
Models.
Pressure.
Initial reinforcement.

Personality may explain why one group member accepts an opportunity while another refuses.

Maintenance

Personality may help explain:

Continued impulsive decisions.
Use of addiction to regulate emotion.
Difficulty resisting cravings.
Seeking increasingly intense rewards.

Social factors may maintain addiction through:

Group approval.
Repeated modelling.
Environmental cues.
Continued availability.
Lack of support for stopping.

Stability

Personality traits are relatively stable, although behaviour can change.

Social influences may alter when the person:

Changes friendship groups.
Leaves home.
Starts work.
Enters treatment.
Moves to another environment.

This gives social explanations practical value because the environment may sometimes be modified.

Predictive Value

Neither category predicts addiction with certainty.

Many impulsive people do not develop addiction.
Many people with friends who smoke never become smokers.
Some people without obvious personality risks become addicted.
Some people leave high-risk groups without developing dependence.

Risk factors are probabilistic.

Individual and Social Factors Interact

A more complete explanation considers interaction.

Sensation Seeking and Peer Groups

A person is high in sensation seeking.
They are attracted to a risk-taking peer group.
The group models gambling.
Gambling provides excitement and approval.
Repetition increases addiction risk.

Neuroticism and Family Stress

A person is high in neuroticism.
Family conflict produces strong anxiety.
Smoking appears to provide relief.
Parents also model smoking.
Relief and modelling reinforce the behaviour.
Dependence develops.

Reward Dependence and Conformity

A person is highly responsive to social approval.
Friends reward participation in online gaming.
The person fears exclusion.
They conform repeatedly.
Gaming becomes central to social identity.
Psychological dependence may develop.

Impulsivity and Availability

A person is impulsive.
Gambling applications provide instant access.
The person acts on urges rapidly.
Immediate wins reinforce betting.
Repeated betting increases risk.

The behaviour arises from the fit between the person and the environment.

A Complete Worked Example

Leila becomes anxious easily and often acts without considering future consequences. Her friends gamble online every evening and praise anyone who places a large bet. When Leila feels stressed, gambling distracts her. She now believes she cannot relax without joining the group.

Individual risk factors

Anxiety and emotional reactivity suggest neuroticism.
Acting without considering consequences suggests impulsivity.
These traits may increase attraction to immediate relief and reward.

Social risk factors

Friends model gambling.
Praise provides social reinforcement.
Group participation creates normative pressure.
Repeated invitations increase access and opportunity.

Learning and dependence

Gambling removes stress temporarily.
Relief negatively reinforces the behaviour.
Believing she cannot relax without gambling suggests psychological dependence.

Interaction

Leila’s personality may make her especially responsive to the rewards provided by her peer group.

Neither personality nor peers alone provide a complete explanation.

Evaluating Personality as a Risk Factor

Strength: Evidence of Associations

Research has identified relationships between personality and addictive behaviour.

AQA mark schemes recognise:

Wan-Sen Yan’s research linking personality type with internet addiction.
Links between neuroticism and nicotine addiction.
Links between neuroticism or psychoticism and drug dependence.

These findings are consistent with the claim that individual characteristics contribute to addiction risk.

The supplied AQA documents do not give detailed procedures or numerical findings for these studies, so such details should not be invented.

Limitation: Correlation Does Not Establish Causation

Most personality research is correlational.

A relationship between neuroticism and addiction could mean:

Neuroticism increases addiction risk.
Addiction increases anxiety and emotional instability.
Withdrawal raises neuroticism scores.
Another variable influences both.
The observed relationship reflects measurement problems.

The June 2025 mark scheme identifies causality and third variables as central issues when evaluating addiction risk factors.

Direction of Effect

Addiction itself may alter personality-related behaviour.

For example:

Withdrawal may cause irritability.
Debt may increase anxiety.
Dependence may reduce self-control.
Social isolation may increase emotional instability.

A person assessed after addiction develops may appear more neurotic or impulsive than they were beforehand.

Longitudinal research measuring personality before addiction begins would provide stronger evidence.

Limitation: Self-Report Measures

Personality is often measured using questionnaires.

Participants may:

Give socially desirable answers.
Lack insight.
Misunderstand items.
Respond according to current mood.
Deliberately minimise addictive behaviour.
Exaggerate traits.

Questionnaire scores may therefore measure self-perception rather than stable personality accurately.

Limitation: No Single Addiction Personality

Different addictions may involve different personality patterns.

For example:

Sensation seeking may be especially relevant to risky gambling.
Neuroticism may be relevant to smoking for stress relief.
Reward dependence may be relevant to socially reinforced behaviour.
Impulsivity may influence several addictions.

This weakens the idea of one universal addiction-prone personality.

Limitation: Traits Are Not Unique to Addiction

Many people are:

Impulsive.
Sensation seeking.
Anxious.
Reward dependent.

without developing addiction.

They may express these characteristics through:

Sport.
Travel.
Creative activity.
Demanding work.
Non-addictive social experiences.

Personality traits increase risk only when combined with suitable opportunities and reinforcement.

Limitation: Personality Labels May Be Circular

A person may be described as impulsive because they repeatedly gamble without considering consequences.

The gambling is then explained by saying that the person is impulsive.

This creates circular reasoning:

They gamble impulsively because they have an impulsive personality, and we know they are impulsive because they gamble impulsively.

Independent measures of personality are needed to avoid this problem.

Strength: Personality Can Explain Individual Differences

People exposed to the same social environment may respond differently.

Within one friendship group:

One person becomes addicted.
Another experiments briefly.
Another refuses completely.

Personality factors may help explain these differences.

For example:

A sensation seeker may find the activity more rewarding.
A person with high self-control may resist pressure.
A highly reward-dependent person may value group approval more strongly.

Practical Applications

Understanding personality risks may help prevention programmes:

Teach impulse-control strategies.
Develop stress-management skills.
Increase self-efficacy.
Provide alternative sources of stimulation.
Prepare individuals for high-risk situations.
Match interventions to personal needs.

However, identifying a risk trait should not be treated as predicting addiction.

Evaluating Social Influences

Strength: Supporting Evidence

AQA identifies Akers and Lee’s research as relevant evidence concerning the effect of social factors on smoking.

Evidence linking family or peer behaviour with smoking is consistent with:

Modelling.
Vicarious reinforcement.
Social norms.
Conformity.

The research supports the idea that addictive behaviour develops within a social context.

Again, the supplied AQA materials do not provide detailed methods or figures, so these should not be invented.

Strength: Psychological Mechanisms Can Be Explained

Social influence provides more than a simple statement that:

Friends cause addiction.

The mechanisms can be described through:

Observation.
Identification.
Imitation.
Vicarious reinforcement.
Direct reinforcement.
Normative social influence.
Internalisation.
Social identity.

The June 2022 examiner report noted that stronger students explained parental influence through social learning theory and peer influence through conformity or normative influence.

Limitation: Peer Selection

A relationship between addictive behaviour and peer behaviour does not show that peers caused the addiction.

People may select friends who already share their:

Attitudes.
Interests.
Personality.
Risk-taking behaviour.
Smoking or gambling habits.

This is the peer-selection problem.

The relationship may be reciprocal:

The group influences the individual, while the individual’s existing preferences influence group choice.

Limitation: Families Share Genes and Environments

A child and parent may both smoke because of:

Shared genetic vulnerability.
Modelling.
Shared stress.
Easy access.
Similar attitudes.
Socioeconomic conditions.

Family resemblance does not isolate social learning.

This connects with inherited predisposition and environmental expression.

Limitation: Social Influence Is Not Inevitable

Many people:

Grow up with parents who smoke.
Have friends who gamble.
Experience direct pressure.
Observe substance use.

without developing addiction.

This suggests that social influence depends on:

Identification.
Personality.
Self-efficacy.
Alternative role models.
Biological response.
Wider norms.
Protective relationships.

Limitation: Social Factors Can Be Difficult to Measure

Researchers must decide how to measure:

Peer pressure.
Family approval.
Group norms.
Identification.
Social identity.
Frequency of exposure.

Self-report questions such as:

“How much do your friends influence your gambling?”

may be affected by:

Memory.
Social desirability.
Lack of insight.
Blaming others.
Different interpretations of influence.

Limitation: Cause and Effect

Addiction may change the person’s social environment.

For example:

A person begins gambling.
They spend more time with other gamblers.
Their original friendships weaken.
Their social group becomes dominated by gambling.

The peer group may then be an effect as well as a cause of addiction.

Strength: Social Explanations Have Practical Value

If addiction is socially influenced, interventions can target:

Family modelling.
Peer norms.
Access.
Group support.
Community attitudes.
Social reinforcement.
High-risk environments.

Possible applications include:

Family-based prevention.
Peer-led education.
Support groups.
Smoke-free environments.
Alternative social activities.
Treatment involving partners or family members.

Limitation: Social Reductionism

A social explanation may be environmentally reductionist because it reduces addiction mainly to:

Modelling.
Reinforcement.
Conformity.
Group norms.

This may overlook:

Genes.
Neurochemistry.
Personality.
Withdrawal.
Cognitive bias.
Individual choice.

However, focusing on specific social mechanisms produces testable and useful interventions.

Comparing the Evaluation of Individual and Social Factors

Issue	Individual factors	Social factors
Evidence	Personality scores correlate with addiction	Family and peer behaviour correlate with addiction
Causality problem	Addiction may change personality	Addiction may change friendship groups
Third variables	Genes, stress or social circumstances	Personality, genes or shared environment
Measurement	Personality questionnaires	Reports of family and peer influence
Strength	Explains why people respond differently	Explains exposure, norms and similarities within groups
Limitation	Traits are not unique to addicted people	Not everyone exposed to addiction imitates it
Practical implication	Develop coping and self-control	Change norms, groups and access
Debate	Dispositional determinism	Environmental determinism

Single-Factor Versus Multiple-Factor Explanations

A single-factor explanation focuses on one cause, such as:

Impulsivity.
Peer pressure.
Genetic vulnerability.

A multiple-factor explanation recognises interaction among:

Genes.
Personality.
Stress.
Family.
Peers.
Learning.
Neurochemistry.
Cognition.

The June 2025 examiner report notes that students effectively evaluated risk factors by arguing that studying them in isolation ignores their interrelated nature.

Why Interactionism Is Stronger

Interactionism can explain why:

Only some impulsive people become addicted.
Only some people with smoking parents begin smoking.
Addiction appears during periods of stress.
Peer influence is stronger for reward-dependent people.
Genetic vulnerability may influence personality.
Personality affects selection of social environments.

A complete model might be:

Genetic vulnerability → impulsive personality → selection of risk-taking peers → exposure and reinforcement → dependence and addiction

No single stage provides the whole explanation.

Nature and Nurture

Personality and social influences contribute to the nature-nurture debate.

Nature

Personality traits may partly reflect:

Genetic inheritance.
Brain functioning.
Temperament.

Nurture

Traits and behaviour may also be shaped by:

Parenting.
Learning.
Experience.
Stress.
Peer groups.
Culture.

Social influences are mainly environmental, although people partly select environments based on personal characteristics.

The clearest conclusion is interactionist.

Determinism

Dispositional Determinism

Personality explanations may imply that enduring traits govern behaviour.

For example:

An impulsive person is destined to become addicted.

This is too deterministic because:

Many impulsive people do not develop addiction.
Self-control can improve.
Environments can change.
Treatment can reduce risk.
Protective factors matter.

Environmental Determinism

Social explanations may suggest that family and peer groups control behaviour.

This underestimates:

Resistance.
Personal values.
Self-efficacy.
Individual interpretation.
People who reject group pressure.

A probabilistic conclusion is stronger:

Personality and social environments influence addiction risk without making addiction unavoidable.

Socially Sensitive Implications

Research into personality and addiction may lead to:

Labelling impulsive young people as future addicts.
Treating anxious people as weak.
Stigmatising families.
Blaming parents for a child’s addiction.
Assuming particular friendship groups are dangerous.
Ignoring structural or biological factors.

Group-level findings should not be used to predict one individual with certainty.

Blaming the Family

Family influence can easily become family blame.

A parent may model smoking, but addiction also involves:

Individual personality.
Genetics.
Wider culture.
Advertising.
Availability.
Stress.
Learning outside the home.

A balanced explanation recognises family influence without presenting parents as the sole cause.

Practical Implications

Understanding personality and social influences can improve prevention.

Personality-Based Prevention

Programmes might:

Teach impulse control.
Develop emotional regulation.
Increase self-efficacy.
Provide alternative stimulation.
Develop coping strategies.
Prepare people for cravings.

Social Prevention

Programmes might:

Challenge group norms.
Use prosocial peer models.
Reduce access.
Involve families.
Increase social support.
Promote addiction-free activities.
Help people leave high-risk environments.

Combined Intervention

A combined approach might help a sensation-seeking person by:

Teaching impulse-management strategies.
Providing exciting non-addictive activities.
Changing peer reinforcement.
Increasing social support.
Reducing access to gambling.

This addresses the person and the environment.

Overall Evaluation

Personality and social influences provide complementary risk factors for addiction.

Traits such as impulsivity, sensation seeking, neuroticism and reward dependence may affect how a person responds to immediate rewards, stress and social approval. Personality can therefore help explain why individuals exposed to similar opportunities develop different outcomes.

Families and peers influence addiction through modelling, identification, reinforcement, conformity, social identity and access. These factors are especially useful for explaining initiation and the social contexts in which addictive behaviour becomes normal.

However, most supporting research is correlational. Addiction may alter personality or friendship groups, and third variables may produce apparent relationships. There is no single addiction-prone personality, and not everyone exposed to addictive models develops addiction.

The most convincing conclusion is interactionist. Personality affects how a person responds to the social environment, while the environment determines exposure, opportunity and reinforcement. Individual and social risk factors increase probability rather than determine behaviour.

Hints from the Examiner Reports 💡

Explain the Psychological Process

Examiner hint: Do not race through a list of traits and social influences.

The June 2022 examiner report found that higher-achieving students explained:

Parental influence using social learning theory.
Peer influence using conformity and normative social influence.

A strong answer states:

The young person observes a parent smoking and sees apparent relaxation. This vicarious reinforcement increases the likelihood that smoking will be imitated.

Use Risk Language

Write:

“Increases the likelihood.”
“May create vulnerability.”
“Is associated with.”
“Could make the reward more attractive.”

Avoid:

“All impulsive people become addicted.”
“Smokers always cause their children to smoke.”
“Peers force addiction.”

Explain Personality Rather Than Naming Traits

Weak answer:

Impulsivity is a risk factor.

Improved answer:

An impulsive person may respond to an immediate opportunity without considering delayed health or financial consequences, increasing the likelihood of repeated addictive behaviour.

Distinguish Modelling and Reinforcement

Modelling: Observing the behaviour.
Vicarious reinforcement: Observing another person receive a reward.
Direct reinforcement: Personally receiving a reward after performing the behaviour.

A complete application may contain all three.

Apply Peer Influence Through Conformity

Do not write only:

Friends influence addiction.

Explain:

The person may conform because participation provides approval and prevents exclusion. This is normative social influence.

Avoid Assuming Peer Pressure Is Direct

Peers do not need to say:

“You must do this.”

The person may infer the group norm from:

What others do.
Who receives approval.
Who is excluded.
Which behaviours define the group.

Keep Individual and Social Factors Distinct

For comparison:

Personality concerns characteristics within the person.
Social influence concerns relationships, norms and reinforcement.

Then show how the categories interact.

Discuss the Interrelated Nature of Risk Factors

The June 2025 examiner report found that the argument that risk factors should not be studied in isolation was often used effectively.

For example:

Reward dependence may make a person especially responsive to peer praise, so personality alters the strength of social influence.

Use Evidence Cautiously

AQA identifies Wan-Sen Yan as relevant personality evidence and Akers and Lee as relevant social-influence evidence.

The supplied materials do not provide their detailed methods or results.

Do not invent:

Sample sizes.
Exact correlations.
Percentages.
Procedures.
Long-term outcomes.

Develop Correlation as an Evaluation Point

Do not state only:

The evidence is correlational.

Develop it:

A relationship between addiction and impulsivity does not show that impulsivity caused the addiction. Long-term dependence and withdrawal may reduce self-control, so the addictive behaviour could partly produce the personality score.

Develop the Peer-Selection Argument

A strong point is:

People may choose friends who already share their attitudes towards smoking or gambling. Similarity within the group may therefore reflect selection as well as conformity.

Use Practical Applications

The June 2022 examiner report noted that intervention implications were useful in higher-scoring answers.

Examples include:

Impulse-control training.
Family education.
Peer-led interventions.
Alternative sources of excitement.
Supportive non-addictive social groups.

Avoid Vague Debate Labels

The examiner report warned against vague claims that an explanation is reductionist or deterministic.

Develop the consequences:

A personality explanation is dispositionally deterministic if it assumes stable traits govern addiction, but many high-risk people never become addicted and coping skills can be learned.

Use an interactionist conclusion.

Mistake 15

Mistake: Using “reductionist” or “deterministic” without explaining the implication.

Why this is incomplete:

Evaluation requires a developed consequence.

How to improve:

State what the explanation overlooks and how that limits prediction or intervention.

Exam-Style Questions ✍️

Question 1

What is meant by a personality risk factor in addiction? [2 marks]

Question 2

Explain how impulsivity may increase the risk of addiction. [3 marks]

Question 3

Explain how neuroticism may be associated with addictive behaviour. [3 marks]

Question 4

Outline two ways in which family members may socially influence addictive behaviour. [4 marks]

Question 5

Liam’s friends gamble online every evening. They praise people who place large bets and tease anyone who refuses to join. Liam is highly sensation seeking and says that ordinary activities are boring.

Use your knowledge of personality and social influence to explain Liam’s risk of developing a gambling addiction. [6 marks]

Question 6

Explain one difference between an individual and a social risk factor in addiction. [4 marks]

Question 7

A researcher investigated the relationship between impulsivity and addictive behaviour.

Impulsivity score	Mean weekly hours spent on the addictive activity
Low	4
Medium	9
High	15

Describe the relationship shown in the table and explain why these results do not demonstrate that impulsivity causes addiction. [4 marks]

Question 8

A study examined smoking initiation in two peer environments.

Dominant peer norm	Number of participants	Number who began smoking
Peers approved of smoking	80	44
Peers disapproved of smoking	80	16

Calculate the percentage of participants who began smoking in each group. Explain how the results may be interpreted using social influence. [6 marks]

Question 9

Explain one strength and one limitation of social influences as risk factors in addiction. [6 marks]

Question 10

Discuss personality and social influences as risk factors in the development of addiction. [16 marks]

Answers and Mark Scheme

Question 1

Award one mark for each of the following:

A relatively enduring individual characteristic or trait.
The characteristic increases the likelihood of addictive behaviour but does not make it inevitable.

Maximum: 2 marks

Question 2

Award one mark for each relevant linked point, up to three marks:

Impulsivity involves acting without fully considering consequences.
The person may prioritise an immediate addictive reward.
Delayed health, financial or social harm may receive less attention.
The person may experiment rapidly.
They may respond to cravings without using coping strategies.
Repeated impulsive decisions may increase addiction risk.

Question 3

Award one mark for each linked point, up to three marks:

Neuroticism involves emotional instability, anxiety or stress sensitivity.
An addictive substance or behaviour may provide temporary relief.
Removal of distress negatively reinforces the behaviour.
The person may develop a belief that they cannot cope without it.
Repetition may contribute to psychological dependence.

Question 4

Award up to two marks for each explained influence.

Possible answers include:

Modelling

The child observes a family member performing the addictive behaviour.
The behaviour becomes available for imitation.

Vicarious reinforcement

The child observes the family member apparently receiving pleasure, relaxation or social reward.
The observed consequence increases the likelihood of imitation.

Family norms

The family communicates that the behaviour is normal or acceptable.
The person may internalise the attitude.

Availability

The substance or activity is easily accessible within the family environment.
Greater opportunity increases initiation risk.

Direct reinforcement

Family approval or inclusion follows participation.
The behaviour becomes more likely to be repeated.

Question 5

Award up to six marks for effective application:

Liam’s boredom and desire for stimulation suggest sensation seeking.
Risky betting may provide the intense stimulation he seeks.
His friends model online gambling.
Praise following large bets provides vicarious or direct reinforcement.
Teasing those who refuse creates normative social influence.
Liam may conform to gain approval or avoid rejection.
Gambling may become part of the group’s social identity.
His sensation seeking may make him especially responsive to the peer environment.
Repeated participation increases exposure and opportunity.
The factors increase risk rather than make addiction inevitable.

Question 6

Possible answer:

An individual risk factor is located mainly within the person, such as impulsivity, neuroticism or sensation seeking. It may affect how the person responds to rewards, stress or cravings. A social risk factor arises through relationships and environments, such as family modelling or peer pressure. It affects exposure, attitudes, availability and social reinforcement. The two may interact because a reward-dependent person may be especially influenced by peer approval.

For four marks, both categories should be accurate and the contrast explicit.

Question 7

Award up to two marks for description:

There is a positive relationship between impulsivity and weekly hours.
As impulsivity increases, time spent on the activity increases.
The high-impulsivity group spends 11 more hours than the low-impulsivity group.

Award up to two marks for causality:

The data are correlational.
Addiction may reduce self-control or increase impulsive behaviour.
A third variable, such as peer influence or stress, may affect both.
The groups may differ in other relevant characteristics.
The table does not show that impulsivity occurred before the addictive behaviour.

Question 8

Award one mark for each correct calculation:

8044×100=55%8016×100=20%

Award up to four marks for explanation:

Smoking initiation is higher where peers approve.
Peer modelling may make smoking appear normal.
Observed social rewards may provide vicarious reinforcement.
Participants may conform to gain approval.
Disapproval may provide a protective group norm.
The relationship does not prove peer approval caused smoking.
Participants may have selected friends with similar attitudes.
Personality or family differences may act as third variables.

Question 9

Award up to three marks for one developed strength and up to three marks for one developed limitation.

Possible strength:

Social influences explain how addictive behaviour is learned and normalised. Family members and peers can model smoking or gambling, while approval provides reinforcement. The explanation is particularly useful for initiation because social groups also provide access and opportunities to participate.

Possible limitation:

Similarity between friends does not establish that peers caused the addiction. People may select friends who already share their attitudes and behaviour. Peer selection and personality differences therefore provide alternative explanations for the relationship.

Other creditworthy limitations include:

Family genetic confounding.
Self-report bias.
Not everyone imitates models.
Cause-and-effect problems.
Environmental determinism.
Failure to explain biological dependence.

Question 10

A high-level answer should include accurate knowledge and developed evaluation.

Indicative AO1 content

Personality risk factors

Personality as relatively enduring characteristics.
Addiction-prone personality.
Impulsivity.
Immediate compared with delayed consequences.
Sensation seeking.
Attraction to novelty, risk and stimulation.
Neuroticism.
Addiction as emotional regulation.
Negative reinforcement.
Psychoticism.
Cloninger’s novelty seeking.
Harm avoidance.
Reward dependence.
Self-control.
Self-efficacy.
Possible antisocial personality characteristics.

Social risk factors

Family socialisation.
Modelling.
Identification.
Imitation.
Vicarious reinforcement.
Direct reinforcement.
Family norms.
Availability.
Peer modelling.
Peer pressure.
Normative social influence.
Compliance and internalisation.
Social identity.
Group norms.
Stress and negative reinforcement.
Protective social influences.

Comparison and interaction

Individual characteristics compared with environmental influences.
Personality explaining responses to the same environment.
Social factors explaining exposure and opportunity.
Initiation compared with maintenance.
Interaction between reward dependence and peer approval.
Interaction between neuroticism and stress.

Indicative AO3 content

Evidence linking personality with addictive behaviour.
Wan-Sen Yan as relevant personality evidence.
Evidence linking social factors with smoking.
Akers and Lee as relevant social evidence.
Correlational nature of research.
Direction of effect.
Third-variable problems.
Addiction altering personality.
Peer selection compared with peer influence.
Family genes and environment being confounded.
Self-report and questionnaire limitations.
No single addiction-prone personality.
Traits not being unique to addicted people.
Social influence not affecting everyone equally.
Individual differences in identification and conformity.
Personality and social factors being interrelated.
Single-factor compared with multifactorial explanations.
Practical applications for prevention and treatment.
Dispositional determinism.
Environmental determinism.
Reductionism.
Nature-nurture interaction.
Socially sensitive implications and family blame.
Need for an interactionist conclusion.

Thirteen to sixteen marks: Knowledge is accurate and generally detailed. Discussion is thorough, focused and effective. Personality and social factors are compared directly and their interaction is explained. Evidence and methodological issues are used to reach a reasoned conclusion.

Nine to twelve marks: Knowledge is mostly accurate and discussion is generally effective. Both personality and social factors are covered, although comparison or evaluation may lack some depth.

Five to eight marks: Some relevant knowledge is present, but the response is mainly descriptive. Traits or social influences may be listed without explaining psychological mechanisms, or evaluation may be generic.

One to four marks: Knowledge is very limited or confused. The response may treat risk factors as guaranteed causes, fail to distinguish personality from social influence or provide little relevant discussion.