Ainsworth’s Strange Situation | AQA A-Level Psychology Revision
Updated: Sep 9
For 7182 specification, first teach in September 2025
AQA A-Level Psychology | Free Revision Notes
Estimated study time: 40 minutes
These The Strange Situation A-Level Psychology revision notes explain how Ainsworth used a controlled observation to assess attachment between infants and caregivers. The procedure exposes an infant to unfamiliarity, separation and reunion, allowing observers to record behaviours such as proximity-seeking, exploration and separation anxiety. These behavioural patterns are then used to classify attachment. You will also evaluate whether the Strange Situation provides a reliable, valid, culturally appropriate and ethical way of measuring attachment, as required by the AQA specification.
Learning Objectives 🎯
By the end of this revision page, you should be able to:
Describe the procedure used in Ainsworth’s Strange Situation.
Explain how attachment behaviour is assessed.
Identify the behavioural categories observed during the procedure.
Apply the Strange Situation to unfamiliar infant-caregiver scenarios.
Evaluate its reliability, validity and cultural appropriateness.
Assess the ethical issues involved in deliberately creating infant distress.
Revision Notes 📚
The Strange Situation A-Level Psychology revision overview
The Strange Situation is a controlled observational procedure developed by Mary Ainsworth to assess the quality of an infant’s attachment to a caregiver.
It places the infant in a carefully structured sequence involving:
An unfamiliar room.
Opportunities to explore.
The entrance of a stranger.
Separation from the caregiver.
Reunion with the caregiver.
A short period in which the infant is left alone.
The aim is not simply to observe whether the infant cries.
Ainsworth examined the overall pattern of behaviour shown towards:
The caregiver.
The stranger.
The unfamiliar environment.
Separation.
Reunion.
These observations are used to identify secure, insecure-avoidant and insecure-resistant attachment.
What does the Strange Situation measure?
The Strange Situation measures the quality of an attachment relationship through observable behaviour.
Attachment is an internal emotional bond, so it cannot be measured directly.
Researchers therefore infer attachment quality from behaviours such as:
Seeking closeness to the caregiver.
Exploring when the caregiver is present.
Showing distress when the caregiver leaves.
Responding cautiously to a stranger.
Seeking or avoiding contact when the caregiver returns.
Becoming comforted after reunion.
This is an example of operationalisation.
The abstract concept of attachment is converted into behaviours that can be:
Observed.
Recorded.
Compared.
Classified.
Attachment as a secure base
A key feature of attachment is the use of the caregiver as a secure base.
A secure base allows the infant to:
Move away from the caregiver.
Explore the environment.
Check that the caregiver remains available.
Return to the caregiver when frightened.
Gain reassurance.
Resume exploration.
The caregiver therefore provides both:
A base for exploration.
A source of comfort during distress.
This idea is consistent with the protective and adaptive functions of attachment.
Why introduce stress?
Attachment behaviour may not be clearly visible when an infant feels completely safe.
Ainsworth therefore introduced gradually increasing stress through:
An unfamiliar environment.
The arrival of a stranger.
Separation from the caregiver.
Being left alone.
These situations are intended to activate the infant’s attachment system.
For example, an infant who has been playing independently may begin seeking the caregiver when a stranger approaches or the caregiver prepares to leave.
The infant’s reaction provides information about how they use the attachment figure during uncertainty.
Stress must remain controlled
The aim is to produce enough uncertainty for attachment behaviour to become visible, not to expose the infant to severe or lasting harm.
Episodes are brief and can be shortened if the infant becomes excessively distressed.
The caregiver also returns during the procedure, creating opportunities to observe reunion and recovery.
The research method
A controlled observation
The Strange Situation is a controlled observation.
The behaviour is observed in a structured environment where researchers control important features of the situation.
These include:
The room.
The available toys.
The order of events.
The entrance and departure of the stranger.
The caregiver’s separations.
The approximate length of each episode.
The behaviours recorded by observers.
This differs from a naturalistic observation in which behaviour would be recorded in the infant’s everyday environment without the researcher arranging events.
The strengths and limitations of this approach connect with controlled and naturalistic observational methods.
Laboratory setting
The procedure normally takes place in an unfamiliar playroom.
The room contains toys so that the infant has an opportunity to explore.
Observers can watch and record behaviour without interfering directly with the infant-caregiver interaction.
Because each infant experiences a similar setting, researchers can compare behavioural patterns across participants.
Participants
Ainsworth studied infants with their caregivers.
The infants were young enough for attachment behaviour to be clearly expressed through:
Clinging.
Following.
Crying.
Exploration.
Reactions to strangers.
Reunion behaviour.
The caregiver was usually the infant’s main attachment figure.
However, the Strange Situation can assess an infant’s relationship with whichever familiar caregiver participates.
Standardisation
Standardisation means keeping the procedure as similar as possible for every participant.
In the Strange Situation:
Episodes occur in a set order.
The same kinds of separation and reunion are used.
The stranger follows a planned pattern of behaviour.
Observers record the same categories.
Each episode lasts for approximately the same amount of time.
Standardisation is important because attachment classifications should reflect differences between infant-caregiver relationships rather than differences in how the study was conducted.
The eight episodes
The Strange Situation consists of eight short episodes.
Each episode usually lasts for approximately three minutes, although it may be shortened if the infant becomes highly distressed.
Stress increases gradually across the procedure.
Episode 1: Introduction
The caregiver and infant enter the unfamiliar room.
A researcher introduces them to the setting and then leaves.
This gives the infant an opportunity to become aware of the new surroundings.
Episode 2: Caregiver and infant
The caregiver sits while the infant is allowed to explore the room and toys.
Observers assess:
Willingness to explore.
Distance from the caregiver.
Whether the infant checks the caregiver’s location.
Whether the caregiver is used as a secure base.
This episode provides a baseline for the infant’s behaviour while the familiar caregiver is present.
Episode 3: Stranger enters
A stranger enters the room.
The stranger initially remains quiet, then speaks to the caregiver and gradually approaches the infant.
Observers assess:
Stranger anxiety.
Whether the infant looks towards the caregiver.
Whether exploration changes.
Whether the infant seeks proximity or reassurance.
The stranger approaches gradually so the infant’s reaction can be observed without an immediate abrupt confrontation.
Episode 4: First separation
The caregiver leaves the room, leaving the infant with the stranger.
The stranger attempts to interact with or comfort the infant.
Observers assess:
Separation anxiety.
The infant’s response to the caregiver leaving.
Whether the infant accepts comfort from the stranger.
Whether the infant continues exploring.
Behaviour towards the door or caregiver’s previous location.
This is the first separation episode.
Episode 5: First reunion
The caregiver returns and greets or comforts the infant.
The stranger leaves.
Observers assess reunion behaviour, including whether the infant:
Approaches the caregiver.
Seeks contact.
Avoids contact.
Resists contact.
Is easily comforted.
Returns to exploration.
Reunion behaviour is especially important because it shows whether the caregiver can reduce the infant’s distress.
Episode 6: Second separation
The caregiver leaves again.
This time, the infant is left alone.
This usually increases stress because neither the caregiver nor the stranger is present.
Observers assess:
Separation distress.
Searching behaviour.
Crying.
Attempts to follow the caregiver.
Whether exploration continues.
Episode 7: Stranger returns
The stranger enters and attempts to comfort or engage with the infant.
Observers compare the infant’s response to the stranger with their response to the caregiver.
They assess whether:
The stranger can provide comfort.
The infant avoids the stranger.
The infant actively resists contact.
The infant continues searching for the caregiver.
Episode 8: Second reunion
The caregiver returns.
The stranger leaves.
Observers again assess reunion behaviour, including:
Proximity-seeking.
Contact maintenance.
Avoidance.
Resistance.
Speed of recovery.
Return to exploration.
This final reunion may be particularly informative because the infant has experienced a more stressful separation.
Summary of the eight episodes
Episode | People present | Main purpose |
1 | Caregiver, infant and researcher briefly | Introduce the unfamiliar setting |
2 | Caregiver and infant | Assess exploration and secure-base behaviour |
3 | Caregiver, infant and stranger | Assess stranger anxiety |
4 | Infant and stranger | Assess separation anxiety and response to stranger comfort |
5 | Caregiver and infant | Assess first reunion behaviour |
6 | Infant alone | Assess response to separation without another adult |
7 | Infant and stranger | Assess response to the stranger after separation |
8 | Caregiver and infant | Assess second reunion and recovery |
Do students need every episode?
You should understand the overall sequence and purpose.
The most important features are:
The infant explores with the caregiver present.
A stranger enters.
The caregiver leaves.
The caregiver returns.
The infant is later left alone.
The stranger returns.
The caregiver returns again.
For an extended description question, accurate knowledge of the episodes strengthens the answer.
For a shorter question, focus on:
Separation.
Reunion.
Stranger exposure.
The behaviours being measured.
How attachment behaviour is assessed
Ainsworth focused on several behavioural categories.
The main behaviours are:
Proximity-seeking.
Exploration and secure-base behaviour.
Stranger anxiety.
Separation anxiety.
Reunion behaviour.
The infant’s overall pattern across these behaviours is used to assess attachment.
Proximity-seeking
Proximity-seeking is behaviour intended to maintain or restore closeness to the caregiver.
Examples include:
Crawling towards the caregiver.
Reaching to be picked up.
Clinging.
Following the caregiver.
Moving closer when uncertain.
Remaining close after reunion.
Proximity-seeking is not measured only by physical distance.
Researchers also consider:
When closeness is sought.
How strongly it is sought.
Whether it reduces distress.
Whether the infant can move away again after reassurance.
Contact maintenance
Some infants try to maintain physical contact after approaching the caregiver.
They may:
Hold onto the caregiver.
Resist being put down.
Continue clinging.
Remain close despite being comforted.
Contact maintenance can provide information about whether reassurance has been effective.
A child who gains comfort may eventually return to play.
A child who remains distressed may continue clinging or resist attempts at soothing.
Exploration
Exploration refers to the infant’s willingness to investigate the room and toys.
Researchers observe whether the infant:
Moves around the room.
Plays with toys.
Looks back towards the caregiver.
Returns to the caregiver.
Stops exploring when the caregiver leaves.
Resumes exploration after reunion.
Exploration should be interpreted in relation to the caregiver’s presence.
An infant may be willing to explore because the caregiver provides security.
Secure-base behaviour
Secure-base behaviour occurs when the infant uses the caregiver as a dependable source of safety while exploring.
The infant may:
Move away to play.
Check that the caregiver remains present.
Return briefly for reassurance.
Explore again.
The balance between independence and proximity is important.
Attachment does not require the infant to remain in constant physical contact.
A secure relationship may allow the infant to explore confidently because support is available when needed.
Stranger anxiety
Stranger anxiety is wariness or distress in response to an unfamiliar person.
It may include:
Moving towards the caregiver.
Avoiding the stranger.
Crying.
Becoming quiet.
Watching the stranger carefully.
Refusing contact.
The level of stranger anxiety is considered alongside the infant’s response to the caregiver.
A child who avoids both caregiver and stranger is displaying a different pattern from a child who strongly prefers the caregiver.
Separation anxiety
Separation anxiety is distress shown when the attachment figure leaves.
It may include:
Crying.
Following the caregiver.
Searching.
Moving towards the door.
Stopping play.
Refusing comfort from the stranger.
The absence of visible crying does not automatically mean that no attachment exists.
Researchers examine the complete pattern of behaviour rather than relying on one response.
Reunion behaviour
Reunion behaviour is the infant’s response when the caregiver returns.
It may include:
Approaching.
Smiling.
Reaching.
Clinging.
Avoidance.
Turning away.
Resistance.
Pushing the caregiver away.
Seeking contact but remaining distressed.
Accepting comfort and returning to play.
Reunion behaviour is especially useful because it shows whether the caregiver can restore the infant’s sense of security.
Why reunion behaviour matters
Separation may create distress in many infants.
The reunion reveals what the caregiver means to the infant.
Researchers consider whether the infant:
Actively seeks the caregiver.
Accepts comfort.
Avoids the caregiver.
Shows mixed approach and resistance.
Recovers sufficiently to explore again.
A child who approaches and is easily comforted displays a different attachment pattern from one who ignores the caregiver or remains angry and difficult to soothe.
Behavioural categories
What are behavioural categories?
Behavioural categories are clearly defined groups of observable actions.
Examples for the Strange Situation might include:
Moves within one metre of caregiver.
Reaches towards caregiver.
Cries after caregiver leaves.
Rejects stranger’s attempt to comfort.
Turns away when caregiver returns.
Resumes playing after reunion.
Clearly defined categories help observers decide consistently which behaviour has occurred.
They also reduce vague judgements such as:
“The infant seemed securely attached.”
Instead, the observer records specific actions from which the classification is later inferred.
The construction of clear categories connects with designing and recording observational behaviour.
Operational definitions
An operational definition states exactly how a behaviour will be recognised or measured.
For example:
Separation anxiety could be measured by the duration of crying after the caregiver leaves.
Proximity-seeking could be measured by the number of approaches towards the caregiver.
Exploration could be measured by time spent interacting with toys.
Reunion behaviour could be measured by whether the infant approaches within a set time.
Operational definitions make the observation more objective.
Event sampling
Researchers may use event sampling by recording each time a particular behaviour occurs.
For example:
Each approach towards the caregiver.
Each rejection of the stranger.
Each attempt to follow the caregiver.
This provides a frequency measure.
Time sampling
Researchers may also record behaviour at regular time intervals.
For example, every set number of seconds an observer could record whether the infant is:
Exploring.
In contact with the caregiver.
Crying.
Watching the stranger.
This provides information about how behaviour changes across the episodes.
Multiple observers
More than one observer can code the same infant’s behaviour.
Their records can then be compared.
If the observers agree closely, this supports inter-observer reliability.
If they frequently disagree, the behavioural categories may be unclear or the training may be insufficient.
Observation through recording
The procedure may be recorded so that behaviour can be:
Viewed more than once.
Slowed down.
Checked by another observer.
Coded without interrupting the procedure.
Reconsidered if classifications differ.
Recording improves the opportunity to assess reliability, although interpretation is still required.
From behaviour to attachment classification
The Strange Situation does not classify attachment from one isolated action.
Observers consider the pattern across:
Exploration.
Stranger anxiety.
Separation anxiety.
Reunion behaviour.
Proximity-seeking.
The same behaviour can have different meanings depending on the full pattern.
For example:
Crying during separation may occur alongside effective comfort at reunion.
Limited crying may occur alongside avoidance of the caregiver.
Strong proximity-seeking may occur alongside resistance to comfort.
Attachment classification therefore requires the behaviours to be interpreted together.
Three attachment classifications
The Strange Situation is used to identify:
Secure attachment
Insecure-avoidant attachment
Insecure-resistant attachment
The detailed behavioural patterns are covered in secure and insecure attachment classifications.
At this stage, remember that the classification depends particularly on:
Use of the caregiver as a secure base.
Reaction to separation.
Preference between caregiver and stranger.
Response to reunion.
Ability to gain comfort.
Attachment type is not based only on crying
A frequent error is to assume:
More crying means a stronger attachment.
This is incorrect.
The intensity of separation distress alone cannot determine attachment type.
An infant may cry intensely but:
Be easily comforted.
Resist comfort.
Avoid the caregiver after reunion.
Remain unable to return to exploration.
The response to reunion helps distinguish these possibilities.
Attachment type is relationship-specific
The Strange Situation assesses the infant’s attachment to the caregiver who participates.
An infant may behave differently with:
Another parent.
A grandparent.
A childcare worker.
Another familiar adult.
The procedure does not automatically measure one fixed characteristic belonging only to the infant.
It assesses behaviour within a particular relationship and situation.
Applying the Strange Situation
Example 1: Secure-base behaviour
Amelia enters an unfamiliar playroom with her father.
She explores the toys but regularly looks towards him. When a stranger approaches, Amelia moves closer to her father. After he briefly leaves and returns, she approaches him, is comforted and then resumes playing.
Relevant observations include:
Exploration in the caregiver’s presence.
Checking the caregiver’s location.
Stranger anxiety.
Proximity-seeking.
Effective comfort at reunion.
Return to exploration.
A developed answer should identify the behaviours rather than merely state that Amelia has an attachment.
Example 2: Limited separation distress
Leo continues playing when his caregiver leaves and does not approach when the caregiver returns.
A weak conclusion would be:
Leo is not attached because he did not cry.
This is too simplistic.
Researchers would assess:
Whether Leo noticed the separation.
His behaviour towards the stranger.
Whether he avoids the caregiver at reunion.
Whether he usually seeks proximity.
The overall pattern across episodes.
Limited visible distress may be meaningful only when considered alongside avoidance and reunion behaviour.
Example 3: Distress and resistance
When her caregiver leaves, Sofia cries intensely.
At reunion, Sofia reaches to be picked up but then pushes the caregiver away and remains difficult to comfort.
Relevant behaviours include:
Strong separation anxiety.
Proximity-seeking.
Resistance to contact.
Limited comfort from reunion.
Difficulty returning to exploration.
This mixed pattern differs from simply seeking and accepting comfort.
Four-stage application structure
When applying the Strange Situation:
Identify the relevant episode.
Name the behaviour being assessed.
Use a specific detail from the scenario.
Explain what the behaviour indicates about the attachment pattern.
Weak application
The infant is attached because they cry.
Stronger application
The infant shows separation anxiety by crying when the caregiver leaves. At reunion, the infant approaches and is quickly comforted before returning to play. The complete pattern includes proximity-seeking, effective soothing and secure-base behaviour.
Evaluating the Strange Situation
Strength: the procedure is standardised
A major strength is that the Strange Situation follows a standardised sequence.
Each infant experiences:
The same general room.
The same order of episodes.
Similar separations and reunions.
The arrival of a stranger.
The same behavioural categories.
This makes comparisons between infants more meaningful.
If one infant explores while another remains close to the caregiver, the difference is less likely to have been produced by completely different procedures.
Standardisation supports replication
Because the procedure is clearly structured, other researchers can repeat it.
Replication allows psychologists to examine whether:
Similar behavioural patterns appear again.
Classifications are consistent.
Findings occur in different samples.
Changes to the setting affect behaviour.
A method that can be replicated is more scientifically useful than an informal judgement made without a defined procedure.
Strength: controlled observation
The controlled environment allows the researchers to introduce the same attachment-related challenges.
Without arranging separation and reunion, a researcher might wait a long time before these behaviours occurred naturally.
The Strange Situation efficiently creates opportunities to assess:
Exploration.
Stranger anxiety.
Separation anxiety.
Reunion behaviour.
The high degree of control increases internal consistency.
Limitation: artificial environment
The unfamiliar playroom is not the infant’s normal home.
The infant may behave differently because:
The room is unfamiliar.
The toys are unfamiliar.
The stranger is part of a planned procedure.
The caregiver has been instructed how to behave.
The separations happen in an unusual sequence.
This may reduce ecological validity.
An infant who appears highly distressed in the study may behave differently during ordinary separations at home.
Artificiality can also be useful
The unfamiliarity is partly deliberate.
If the procedure took place in a completely familiar environment, the infant might feel so secure that attachment behaviour would not become visible.
The artificial setting therefore creates a trade-off:
It reduces everyday realism.
It allows controlled assessment of the attachment system.
A strong evaluation recognises both sides.
Strength: observable behavioural measures
The method records visible behaviours rather than relying only on a caregiver’s opinion.
This reduces problems such as:
Poor memory.
Social desirability.
A caregiver presenting the relationship positively.
Different interpretations of questionnaire wording.
Observers can record what the infant actually does during separation and reunion.
Limitation: behaviour still requires interpretation
Although the behaviours are observable, their meaning is inferred.
For example, failure to approach the caregiver might indicate:
Avoidance.
Low distress.
Continued interest in a toy.
Uncertainty.
A temporary reaction to the setting.
Observers must decide how the behaviour fits the classification system.
The method is therefore more objective than an informal judgement, but it is not free from interpretation.
Strength: inter-observer reliability
Observers can be trained to use the same behavioural categories.
Several observers can independently code the same recording and compare their classifications.
High agreement would suggest that:
Categories are clear.
Behaviour is being recorded consistently.
Classification does not depend entirely on one observer’s personal opinion.
This is a major advantage of a structured observation.
Observer disagreement
Observers may still disagree when behaviour is:
Brief.
Ambiguous.
Mixed.
Difficult to see.
Located between two categories.
Reliability can be improved through:
Clear operational definitions.
Observer training.
Pilot observations.
Recorded sessions.
Independent coding.
Calculating inter-observer agreement.
Reliability is not the same as validity
A method can classify infants consistently without necessarily measuring attachment accurately.
For example, two observers might agree that an infant showed little separation anxiety.
Their agreement demonstrates reliability.
It does not by itself prove that the behaviour reveals the true quality of the attachment.
This distinction is crucial:
Reliability | Validity |
Consistency of measurement | Accuracy of measurement |
Do observers agree? | Does the procedure measure attachment? |
Can classifications be repeated? | Do classifications represent real relationships? |
Construct validity
Construct validity concerns whether the method successfully measures the psychological concept it claims to measure.
The Strange Situation assumes that behaviours under brief stress reveal attachment quality.
This is plausible because attachment figures are expected to provide:
Security.
Comfort.
A base for exploration.
However, behaviour in one short procedure may also be affected by:
Tiredness.
Hunger.
Illness.
Recent separation experiences.
Familiarity with childcare.
Interest in the toys.
The infant’s immediate mood.
The procedure may therefore measure a mixture of attachment and temporary situational influences.
A snapshot of behaviour
The Strange Situation is brief.
It gives a detailed but limited snapshot of the relationship.
A child’s attachment develops through repeated interactions over time.
One short session may not represent:
Behaviour across an ordinary week.
Responses to different kinds of distress.
Interaction in familiar settings.
Behaviour with other caregivers.
Changes as the child develops.
Repeated observation could provide a fuller picture but would require more time and resources.
Predictive validity
A method has predictive validity if its results are associated with relevant later outcomes.
If Strange Situation classifications are meaningfully related to later:
Peer relationships.
Emotional security.
Responses to caregivers.
Adult relationships.
this would support the view that the method measures an important attachment pattern.
The influence of early attachment is considered in childhood and adult relationship outcomes.
However, later relationships are affected by many experiences.
An association does not prove that the Strange Situation classification caused the later outcome.
Cultural bias
The Strange Situation was developed within a particular cultural setting.
The procedure assumes that certain behaviours have similar meanings for all infants.
For example:
Independent exploration may be interpreted positively.
Moderate separation distress may be expected.
Avoidance may be interpreted as insecurity.
Strong distress may be interpreted as resistance.
Different cultures may have different childcare practices.
Infants may vary in their experience of:
Separation from caregivers.
Contact with strangers.
Day care.
Independence.
Close physical contact.
Several caregivers.
Cultural practices affect behaviour
An infant who is rarely separated from a caregiver may find the procedure unusually distressing.
Another infant who regularly experiences childcare may show less separation anxiety.
These differences do not automatically mean that one attachment is healthier.
They may reflect different experiences and expectations.
This issue is examined further through cross-cultural attachment patterns.
Imposed etic
An imposed etic occurs when a method developed in one culture is applied to another culture as though the original standards were universal.
The Strange Situation may create this risk if:
US behavioural expectations are treated as the ideal.
Different cultural behaviours are automatically classified as insecure.
Local meanings of independence and proximity are ignored.
A culturally appropriate assessment should consider whether the same behaviour has the same meaning in each setting.
The method may favour a particular view of attachment
The procedure values a balance between:
Exploration.
Proximity-seeking.
Effective comfort.
Return to independent activity.
This may fit cultures that encourage early independence.
Cultures that value greater physical closeness may produce different behavioural patterns without necessarily producing less healthy attachments.
The classification system must therefore be interpreted cautiously across cultures.
Classification may oversimplify behaviour
The Strange Situation places infants into categories.
Categories are useful because they:
Summarise complex observations.
Make comparisons easier.
Allow researchers to identify patterns.
Support statistical analysis.
However, some infants may display behaviours from more than one category.
Attachment may vary along dimensions such as:
Strength of separation anxiety.
Willingness to explore.
Degree of avoidance.
Ease of comfort.
A categorical label may hide this variation.
A label can appear too fixed
Calling an infant “secure” or “insecure” may make the classification appear to be a permanent personal characteristic.
In reality:
The classification concerns a particular attachment relationship.
Behaviour may change with development.
Different caregivers may produce different patterns.
Later experiences can influence the relationship.
Labels should be used as descriptions of observed patterns, not as permanent judgements about the infant.
Ethical issues
Psychological distress
The main ethical issue is that the procedure deliberately creates infant distress.
The infant may experience:
Separation anxiety.
Fear of the stranger.
Uncertainty in the unfamiliar room.
Distress when left alone.
Difficulty being comforted.
Infants cannot provide informed consent themselves.
Their caregivers must consent on their behalf.
Protection from harm
Researchers have a responsibility to protect the infant from excessive distress.
Possible safeguards include:
Keeping episodes brief.
Ending an episode if distress becomes intense.
Allowing the caregiver to return.
Monitoring the infant continuously.
Avoiding unnecessary repetition.
Debriefing and supporting the caregiver.
The scientific benefit of observing attachment must be balanced against the child’s welfare.
Is the distress greater than everyday life?
A possible defence is that infants may naturally experience brief separations and encounters with strangers.
The procedure attempts to reproduce these ordinary challenges in a controlled way.
However, the repeated sequence of:
Separation.
Reunion.
Being left alone.
Stranger return.
may be more stressful than a typical everyday event.
The ethical acceptability depends on careful limits and prompt intervention.
Caregiver distress
Caregivers may also experience discomfort when:
Hearing the infant cry.
Being instructed not to return immediately.
Watching the infant reject or resist them.
Receiving an insecure classification.
Researchers should explain that:
Behaviour in one session is not a complete judgement of parenting.
Attachment classifications are not moral labels.
Temporary distress can affect behaviour.
The caregiver can withdraw the infant.
Social sensitivity
Attachment research may be socially sensitive because classifications can be interpreted as judgements about:
Parenting quality.
Family relationships.
Child development.
Future emotional outcomes.
An insecure classification could produce:
Guilt.
Anxiety.
Blame.
Unwarranted predictions about the child’s future.
Researchers and professionals must communicate findings carefully and avoid deterministic conclusions.
Practical usefulness
A systematic assessment
The Strange Situation provides a structured way to study attachment.
Without a standardised procedure, professionals might rely on:
Personal impressions.
Unstructured observation.
Caregiver reports.
Behaviour seen in only one ordinary setting.
The Strange Situation gives researchers a common set of behaviours and situations to examine.
Comparison between studies
Because researchers can use the same procedure, findings can be compared across:
Different samples.
Different communities.
Different caregivers.
Different cultural groups.
Different periods of development.
This has supported research into both attachment types and cultural variation.
Use with caution
The procedure should not be treated as a perfect diagnostic test.
A responsible interpretation considers:
The child’s experiences.
The caregiver relationship being assessed.
The cultural setting.
The infant’s condition on the day.
Other observations and information.
The Strange Situation is most useful as one source of evidence rather than the only judgement about a relationship.
Strange Situation and Bowlby’s theory
The method can be connected with Bowlby’s ideas.
Secure base
Bowlby proposed that attachment provides security from which the infant can explore.
The Strange Situation directly observes whether the infant:
Explores with the caregiver present.
Returns when distressed.
Gains comfort.
Resumes exploration.
Separation and reunion
Bowlby viewed proximity to the attachment figure as adaptive.
The Strange Situation examines:
Distress when proximity is interrupted.
Behaviour when proximity is restored.
Preference for the caregiver over a stranger.
Internal working model
The Strange Situation does not directly observe the internal working model.
It observes behaviour that may reflect expectations about whether the caregiver is:
Available.
Responsive.
Comforting.
Dependable.
The mental representation itself remains an inference.
Strange Situation and research methods
Independent variable and dependent variable
The original procedure is primarily an observational assessment rather than a simple experiment comparing two deliberately manipulated groups.
Researchers observe how behaviour changes across standardised episodes.
Possible measured outcomes include:
Frequency of proximity-seeking.
Duration of crying.
Time spent exploring.
Acceptance of stranger comfort.
Reunion response.
Attachment classification.
Quantitative data
The study can produce quantitative data, such as:
Number of approaches.
Time spent exploring.
Duration of crying.
Frequency of avoidance.
Agreement between observers.
Quantitative data make comparison and analysis easier.
Qualitative information
Observers may also record detailed descriptions of behaviour.
For example:
“The infant reached towards the caregiver, then turned away and pushed against contact.”
Such qualitative information can help interpret complex or mixed behaviour.
Behavioural data are not self-report
The infant does not answer questions or complete a rating scale.
The method records direct behavioural observations.
This avoids problems associated with asking an infant to describe:
Feelings.
Trust.
Fear.
Relationship expectations.
However, researchers still infer internal attachment from outward behaviour.
Planning an evaluation answer
A useful evaluation can be organised around four questions.
Is it reliable?
Consider:
Standardisation.
Replication.
Behavioural categories.
Observer training.
Inter-observer agreement.
Is it valid?
Consider:
Whether brief behaviour represents the attachment relationship.
The artificial environment.
Temporary situational influences.
Predictive validity.
Whether the caregiver is genuinely used as a secure base.
Is it culturally appropriate?
Consider:
Different childcare practices.
Different experiences of separation.
Cultural meanings of independence.
The danger of an imposed etic.
Is it ethical?
Consider:
Infant distress.
Inability of infants to consent.
Protection from harm.
Caregiver consent.
Socially sensitive classifications.
Building effective evaluation paragraphs
Reliability paragraph
The Strange Situation uses a standardised sequence of separation, stranger contact and reunion. Observers also record defined behavioural categories. This allows different observers and researchers to apply the same procedure, improving inter-observer reliability and replicability. However, consistent classification does not by itself establish that the method validly measures attachment.
Ecological-validity paragraph
The observation occurs in an unfamiliar playroom and involves planned separations. An infant’s behaviour may therefore differ from their responses during ordinary family life, reducing ecological validity. However, the unfamiliarity is needed to activate attachment behaviour, so greater artificiality contributes to greater experimental control.
Cultural-bias paragraph
The Strange Situation was developed using assumptions about appropriate separation, exploration and reunion behaviour. Infants from cultures with different childcare practices may respond differently because the situation is more or less familiar to them. Applying the original classifications universally may therefore create an imposed etic.
Ethics paragraph
The procedure deliberately exposes infants to separation and stranger anxiety, creating a risk of psychological distress. This is particularly important because infants cannot consent. However, episodes are brief, caregivers consent and the procedure can be ended when distress becomes excessive.
Hints from the Examiner Reports 💡
Examiner hint: Read the command word carefully. If asked to distinguish between attachment behaviours or classifications, make explicit comparisons rather than writing two unrelated descriptions.
Examiner hint: Keep procedure, behaviour and classification separate. Describe what happens in the Strange Situation, then explain which behaviours are recorded and how the pattern is interpreted.
Examiner hint: Do not classify attachment from separation anxiety alone. Use the full pattern, especially exploration and reunion behaviour.
Examiner hint: When evaluating a controlled observation, make each point specific to the Strange Situation. Generic comments about laboratory research will gain limited value unless you explain their effect on measuring attachment.
Examiner hint: Distinguish reliability from validity. Consistent agreement between observers supports reliability but does not prove that the procedure measures the infant’s everyday attachment accurately.
Examiner hint: If a scenario provides behavioural evidence, quote or paraphrase that evidence and link it directly to proximity-seeking, secure-base behaviour, separation anxiety or reunion behaviour.
Examiner hint: Remain focused on the question. A description of Bowlby, Harlow or Lorenz will not answer a question asking specifically about Ainsworth’s method.
AQA examiner commentary has noted that students lose marks when they provide separate descriptions instead of making an explicit distinction, or when methodological suggestions are not specific to the controlled observation being discussed.
Common Mistakes ⚠️
Mistake: Saying the Strange Situation is an interview
Why this is incorrect:
It is a controlled observation of infant-caregiver behaviour.
How to improve:
Refer to the structured episodes and observable behavioural categories.
Mistake: Saying the caregiver asks the infant questions
Why this is incorrect:
The infant’s behaviour is observed during exploration, separation, stranger contact and reunion.
How to improve:
Focus on actions such as approaching, clinging, avoiding and exploring.
Mistake: Saying the procedure measures attachment directly
Why this is inaccurate:
Attachment is an internal bond that must be inferred from behaviour.
How to improve:
Explain how attachment is operationalised through observable responses.
Mistake: Saying there is only one separation
Why this is incorrect:
The caregiver leaves twice, and the second separation leaves the infant alone.
How to improve:
Learn the sequence of the eight episodes.
Mistake: Forgetting the stranger
Why this matters:
The stranger allows researchers to assess stranger anxiety and whether the infant prefers comfort from the caregiver.
How to improve:
Include the stranger’s arrival, contact and return.
Mistake: Saying that all episodes must continue for exactly three minutes
Why this is inaccurate:
Episodes are brief but can be shortened if the infant becomes excessively distressed.
How to improve:
Use “approximately three minutes” and acknowledge ethical safeguards.
Mistake: Classifying attachment only from crying
Why this is incorrect:
Crying gives information about separation anxiety but not the complete attachment pattern.
How to improve:
Include exploration, proximity-seeking and reunion behaviour.
Mistake: Assuming no crying means no attachment
Why this is incorrect:
An infant may show attachment through other behaviours, including avoidance or limited visible distress.
How to improve:
Interpret the overall pattern.
Mistake: Treating exploration as evidence that the infant does not need the caregiver
Why this is incorrect:
Confident exploration may occur because the caregiver provides a secure base.
How to improve:
Explain the relationship between security and independence.
Mistake: Ignoring reunion behaviour
Why this is a serious omission:
Reunion reveals whether the infant seeks and gains comfort from the caregiver.
How to improve:
Include approaching, avoidance, resistance and recovery.
Mistake: Confusing reliability with validity
Why this is incorrect:
Observer agreement concerns consistency. Validity concerns whether attachment is being measured accurately.
How to improve:
State clearly which quality each evaluation point affects.
Mistake: Saying standardisation guarantees validity
Why this is incorrect:
A method can be consistently repeated while still being artificial or culturally biased.
How to improve:
Evaluate reliability and validity separately.
Mistake: Giving an undeveloped artificiality criticism
Why this is incomplete:
Simply saying “the setting is artificial” does not explain the consequence.
How to improve:
Explain that behaviour in an unfamiliar playroom may not represent ordinary separation at home.
Mistake: Saying cultural differences automatically show that the method is useless
Why this is too extreme:
The procedure can identify behavioural variation, but classifications must be interpreted in their cultural context.
How to improve:
Explain the risk of using one culture’s standards universally.
Mistake: Calling the research unethical without explanation
Why this is incomplete:
Ethical evaluation requires identification of the harm and safeguards.
How to improve:
Refer to infant distress, lack of infant consent, brief episodes and ending the procedure if necessary.
Mistake: Assuming an attachment classification is permanent
Why this is incorrect:
The classification describes behaviour in one relationship and situation.
How to improve:
Acknowledge that later experiences and different caregivers may produce different behaviour.
Exam-Style Questions ✍️
Question 1
Which one of the following behaviours is most directly assessed when a caregiver leaves the room?
A. Secure-base behaviour
B. Separation anxiety
C. Stranger anxiety
D. Cultural bias
[1 mark]
reveal mark scheme and indicative content
Answer: B. Separation anxiety
Question 2
Define reunion behaviour in the context of the Strange Situation.
[2 marks]
reveal mark scheme and indicative content
Mark scheme
AO1 = 2
2 marks: Clear definition referring to how an infant responds when the caregiver returns after a separation.
1 mark: Limited or partial definition.
Indicative content
Reunion behaviour may include:
seeking proximity or contact
accepting comfort
avoiding the caregiver
resisting contact
These behaviours help identify attachment type.
Example answer
Reunion behaviour is the way an infant responds when their caregiver returns after a period of separation, for example whether they approach, avoid or resist the caregiver.
Question 3
Outline the purpose of the stranger in Ainsworth’s Strange Situation.
[3 marks]
reveal mark scheme and indicative content
Mark scheme
AO1 = 3
Award 1 mark each for:
Introducing an unfamiliar person into the situation.
Allowing stranger anxiety to be assessed.
Allowing the infant’s response to the stranger to be compared when the caregiver is present and absent.
Indicative content
The stranger provides a standardised source of mild social stress, helping researchers assess how the infant uses the caregiver for security.
Example answer
The stranger provides an unfamiliar person so that Ainsworth can assess stranger anxiety. Researchers can observe how the infant responds to the stranger when the caregiver is present and how this changes when the caregiver leaves.
Question 4
Describe the sequence of events used in the Strange Situation.
[6 marks]
reveal mark scheme and indicative content
Mark scheme
AO1 = 6
Award 1 mark for each relevant procedural point, up to 6 marks.
Indicative content
The caregiver and infant enter an unfamiliar room containing toys.
The infant is given an opportunity to explore with the caregiver present.
A stranger enters and interacts with the caregiver and infant.
The caregiver leaves, leaving the infant with the stranger.
The caregiver returns and the stranger leaves, producing the first reunion.
The caregiver then leaves the infant alone.
The stranger returns.
Finally, the caregiver returns and the stranger leaves, producing a second reunion.
Behaviour is observed throughout, usually across short, standardised episodes.
Example answer
The caregiver and infant enter an unfamiliar room and the infant is allowed to explore. A stranger then enters. The caregiver leaves, leaving the infant with the stranger, and later returns. The caregiver then leaves again so the infant is alone. The stranger returns, followed finally by the caregiver. The infant’s behaviour during exploration, separation and reunion is observed throughout.
Question 5
Explain how Ainsworth used exploration and proximity-seeking to assess attachment behaviour.
[4 marks]
reveal mark scheme and indicative content
Mark scheme
AO1 = 4
Award up to 2 marks for exploration and 2 marks for proximity-seeking.
Indicative content
Exploration
Researchers observe how confidently the infant explores the unfamiliar room.
Using the caregiver as a secure base for exploration suggests a secure attachment.
Proximity-seeking
Researchers observe whether the infant approaches or seeks contact with the caregiver, particularly at reunion.
Differences in proximity-seeking help distinguish attachment types.
Example answer
Ainsworth observed whether infants explored the unfamiliar room while using their caregiver as a secure base. Securely attached infants are generally confident to explore when the caregiver is present. She also observed proximity-seeking, especially at reunion. Seeking and accepting contact from the caregiver indicates a different attachment pattern from avoiding or resisting contact.
AQA specifically recognises proximity-seeking and reunion behaviour as behaviours used to distinguish attachment types.
Question 6
An infant explores an unfamiliar room while regularly looking towards their caregiver. When the caregiver leaves, the infant cries. At reunion, the infant approaches, is comforted and soon begins playing again.
Identify and explain three attachment behaviours shown by the infant.
[6 marks]
reveal mark scheme and indicative content
Mark scheme
AO2 = 6
Award up to 2 marks for each correctly identified and explained behaviour.
Indicative content
Secure-base behaviour / exploration
The infant explores the unfamiliar room.
Regularly looking towards the caregiver suggests the caregiver is being used as a secure base.
Separation anxiety
The infant cries when the caregiver leaves.
This shows distress caused by separation from the attachment figure.
Reunion behaviour / proximity-seeking
The infant approaches the caregiver when they return.
The infant is comforted and then returns to play, consistent with effective reunion behaviour.
Example answer
The infant shows secure-base behaviour because they explore the unfamiliar room but regularly check that the caregiver is nearby. They show separation anxiety because they cry when the caregiver leaves. They also show proximity-seeking and positive reunion behaviour because they approach the caregiver when they return, are easily comforted and then resume playing.
Question 7
A researcher says:
“The infant did not cry when the caregiver left, so the infant cannot have been attached.”
Use your knowledge of the Strange Situation to explain why this conclusion is not justified.
[4 marks]
reveal mark scheme and indicative content
Mark scheme
AO2 = 4
Award 1 mark each for:
Lack of crying only indicates low separation anxiety.
It does not demonstrate an absence of attachment.
For example, an insecure-avoidant infant may show little separation anxiety but is still classified as attached.
Attachment classification depends on several behaviours, including reunion behaviour, proximity-seeking, stranger anxiety and exploration.
AQA explicitly identifies low separation anxiety as characteristic of insecure-avoidant attachment rather than evidence that no attachment exists.
Example answer
Not crying only shows that the infant displays little separation anxiety. An insecure-avoidant infant may show very little distress when the caregiver leaves but is still attached. Ainsworth did not classify attachment using separation anxiety alone. Behaviour at reunion, proximity-seeking, stranger anxiety and exploration would also need to be considered.
Question 8
Two observers independently recorded an infant’s behaviour.
Behavioural category | Observer A | Observer B |
Approaches to caregiver | 6 | 6 |
Avoidance behaviours | 2 | 3 |
Attempts to maintain contact | 5 | 5 |
Episodes of crying | 4 | 4 |
What do these results suggest about the reliability of the observation? Explain your answer.
[4 marks]
reveal mark scheme and indicative content
Mark scheme
AO2 = 4
Award 1 mark each for:
The observation appears to have high inter-observer reliability.
The observers recorded identical scores for three of the four behavioural categories.
They both recorded 6 approaches, 5 attempts to maintain contact and 4 episodes of crying.
Their only disagreement is small, 2 compared with 3 avoidance behaviours, suggesting high but not perfect consistency.
Indicative content
High agreement between independent observers suggests that the behavioural categories were being interpreted and applied consistently.
Example answer
The results suggest high inter-observer reliability because the observers agree on three of the four categories. Both record 6 approaches, 5 attempts to maintain contact and 4 episodes of crying. The only difference is avoidance behaviour, where the scores are 2 and 3. This suggests that their observations are highly consistent, although not perfectly reliable.
AQA treats agreement between observers as a measure of reliability and has previously cited evidence of high inter-rater reliability as a strength of the Strange Situation.
Question 9
Explain one strength and one limitation of using a controlled observation to measure attachment.
[6 marks]
reveal mark scheme and indicative content
Mark scheme
AO3 = 6
Award up to 3 marks for the strength and 3 marks for the limitation.
Indicative content
Strength
A controlled observation allows a standardised procedure.
Each infant experiences similar separations, reunions and stranger encounters.
This makes behaviour easier to compare and allows replication, increasing reliability.
Limitation
The observation takes place in an unfamiliar, artificial environment.
Infants may behave differently from how they would at home.
This may reduce ecological validity, so behaviour might not accurately represent everyday attachment.
AQA's 2021 mark scheme explicitly identifies the Strange Situation's standardised procedure and replicability as strengths, and its lack of ecological validity as a controlled observation as a limitation. Controlled observations are also credited by AQA for minimising extraneous variables and increasing standardisation.
Example answer
One strength is that the Strange Situation is highly standardised. Each infant experiences similar events involving exploration, separation, reunion and a stranger, so behaviour can be compared consistently and the procedure can be replicated. This increases reliability.
One limitation is that the Strange Situation takes place in an unfamiliar controlled environment. Infants may behave differently there than they would in everyday life with their caregiver, so the observations may have reduced ecological validity.
Question 10
Discuss the Strange Situation as a method of measuring attachment.
[16 marks]
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