Early attachment and later relationships | AQA A-Level Psychology Revision
Updated: Sep 9
For 7182 specification, first teach in September 2025
AQA A-Level Psychology | Free Revision Notes
Estimated study time: 45 minutes
These Early attachment and later relationships A-Level Psychology revision notes examine how an infant’s first attachment may influence friendships, bullying, romantic relationships and later parenting. Bowlby proposed that early interaction creates an internal working model, a mental template containing expectations about the self and other people. These expectations may guide later relationships, although they do not determine them completely. You will examine supporting evidence, methodological problems and the importance of later experiences when applying the model.
Learning Objectives 🎯
By the end of this revision page, you should be able to:
Explain how early attachment may influence childhood friendships and peer relationships.
Explain possible links between attachment and bullying.
Explain how early attachment may influence adult romantic relationships.
Explain how early attachment may influence parenting.
Apply the internal working model to later relationship experiences.
Evaluate evidence for continuity between early and later relationships.
Distinguish influence from an inevitable cause-and-effect relationship.
These objectives match the final attachment lesson in the course plan.
Revision Notes đź“š
Early attachment and later relationships A-Level Psychology revision overview
Bowlby proposed that an infant’s first attachment provides a foundation for later relationships.
The proposed sequence is:
Early attachment experience → internal working model → expectations about relationships → later social behaviour
A child whose caregiver is dependable may expect other people to be:
Available.
Trustworthy.
Supportive.
Responsive during distress.
A child whose caregiver is rejecting or inconsistent may develop less positive expectations.
These expectations may influence:
Friendships.
Relationships with peers.
Bullying experiences.
Adult romantic relationships.
Relationships with the person’s own children.
This proposed continuity is based on the internal working model created through the primary attachment.
What is the continuity hypothesis?
The continuity hypothesis is the proposal that the quality of early attachment is associated with the quality of later relationships.
It does not necessarily mean that behaviour remains identical throughout life.
Instead, an underlying pattern may continue.
For example:
Trust in a caregiver may contribute to trust in friends.
Effective comfort-seeking may support asking others for help.
Fear of rejection may continue into romantic relationships.
Experience of sensitive care may provide a model for later parenting.
The continuity hypothesis predicts a degree of consistency between:
Infant attachment.
Childhood peer relationships.
Adult romantic relationships.
Adult caregiving behaviour.
Continuity is not certainty
Early attachment may influence later relationships without determining them completely.
Later development is also affected by:
New relationships.
Family circumstances.
Friendships.
Education.
Personality.
Temperament.
Culture.
Stressful experiences.
Supportive interventions.
Personal choices.
A secure infant could later experience harmful relationships.
An insecure infant could develop secure and supportive relationships.
Use cautious language such as:
“May influence”
“Is associated with”
“Could increase the likelihood”
“Provides a possible explanation”
Avoid saying that early attachment guarantees a particular outcome.
The internal working model
What is the internal working model?
The internal working model, or IWM, is a mental representation of relationships formed from an infant’s early attachment experiences.
It acts as a:
Blueprint.
Schema.
Prototype.
Template.
Set of expectations.
The model contains expectations about:
The self.
Other people.
How relationships operate.
A model of the self
Early care may influence whether a child sees themselves as:
Worthy of care.
Lovable.
Able to ask for help.
Deserving of respect.
Capable of maintaining relationships.
A consistently responsive caregiver may contribute to a positive model of the self.
Repeated rejection may contribute to expectations such as:
“My needs are unimportant.”
“Other people may not want me.”
“I must hide my distress.”
“I need constant reassurance to prevent rejection.”
These expectations are not necessarily conscious thoughts.
They may operate as underlying assumptions that influence behaviour.
A model of other people
The child also develops expectations about whether other people are:
Dependable.
Trustworthy.
Emotionally available.
Rejecting.
Inconsistent.
Difficult to rely on.
A child whose caregiver responds sensitively may expect support to be available.
A child whose caregiver frequently rejects attempts at closeness may expect similar rejection from others.
A model of relationships
The child learns what normally happens in a close relationship.
For example:
Whether seeking comfort is effective.
Whether emotional closeness is safe.
Whether separation is temporary.
Whether disagreements lead to abandonment.
Whether affection is returned.
Whether people can be trusted.
The internal working model therefore guides the child’s interpretation of later social experiences.
How the model develops
The model develops through repeated interaction.
Responsive pattern
The infant becomes distressed.
The caregiver notices the signal.
The caregiver responds sensitively.
The infant is comforted.
The infant learns that support is available.
This expectation becomes part of the internal working model.
Rejecting pattern
The infant seeks comfort.
The caregiver repeatedly rejects or ignores the infant.
The infant’s distress is not effectively reduced.
The infant learns that seeking support may be unsuccessful.
Avoidance or emotional distance may develop.
Inconsistent pattern
The infant seeks comfort.
The caregiver sometimes responds but sometimes does not.
The infant cannot predict whether support will be available.
The infant may become highly anxious about separation.
Reassurance-seeking may continue in later relationships.
The internal working model as a filter
The model may influence how a person interprets ambiguous behaviour.
Suppose a friend does not reply to a message.
A person with positive relationship expectations might think:
“They are probably busy. I will speak to them later.”
A person expecting rejection might think:
“They no longer want to be my friend.”
The same event can therefore be interpreted differently.
These interpretations may influence:
Emotional reactions.
Communication.
Conflict.
Trust.
Future behaviour.
Self-fulfilling expectations
The internal working model may contribute to a self-fulfilling prophecy.
This occurs when an expectation influences behaviour in a way that helps make the expectation come true.
For example:
A person expects others to reject them.
They behave defensively or avoid closeness.
Other people find the relationship difficult.
The relationship becomes less supportive.
The original expectation appears to be confirmed.
Alternatively:
A person expects others to be supportive.
They communicate openly and seek help appropriately.
Other people respond positively.
Trust develops.
The positive expectation is reinforced.
This provides one possible mechanism through which early experience could influence later relationships.
Early attachment and childhood relationships
Relationships with peers
During childhood, relationships extend beyond the caregiver.
Children form relationships with:
Friends.
Classmates.
Siblings.
Teachers.
Team members.
Other children in their community.
The internal working model may affect how children approach these relationships.
Secure attachment and childhood friendships
A securely attached child has experienced a caregiver as dependable and comforting.
The child may therefore be more likely to:
Trust friends.
Cooperate.
Show empathy.
Ask for help.
Provide support.
Resolve disagreements.
Feel comfortable with closeness.
Maintain friendships.
Understand social boundaries.
Secure attachment may also support emotional regulation.
A child who can manage distress may find it easier to:
Take turns.
Compromise.
Recover after conflict.
Consider another child’s feelings.
Avoid responding aggressively.
Secure-base behaviour and peer confidence
A secure caregiver may give the child confidence to explore the social environment.
The child may feel able to:
Join unfamiliar activities.
Meet new people.
Take manageable social risks.
Return to the caregiver for support.
This reflects the secure-base behaviour observed through Ainsworth’s separation and reunion procedure.
As the child grows older, confidence originally supported by the caregiver may be applied to friendships and school relationships.
Insecure-avoidant attachment and peers
An infant showing insecure-avoidant attachment displays limited proximity-seeking and avoids the caregiver at reunion.
If this pattern contributes to the internal working model, the child may learn that:
Seeking emotional support is ineffective.
Closeness may lead to rejection.
Feelings should be hidden.
Independence is safer than dependence.
In later childhood, this may be associated with:
Emotional distance.
Difficulty asking for help.
Limited trust.
Avoiding close friendships.
Appearing self-reliant.
Difficulty sharing worries.
However, an avoidant infant will not necessarily become a socially withdrawn child.
Later experiences can alter the original expectations.
Insecure-resistant attachment and peers
An infant showing insecure-resistant attachment seeks contact but resists comfort and remains distressed.
This may contribute to expectations that caregivers and relationships are unpredictable.
In childhood, the person may:
Worry about rejection.
Seek frequent reassurance.
Become highly dependent on a friend.
React strongly to possible exclusion.
Find conflict difficult to manage.
Want closeness while remaining uncertain about trust.
These are possible influences rather than fixed outcomes.
The infant attachment patterns are explained in secure, insecure-avoidant and insecure-resistant attachment.
Early attachment and bullying
Why might attachment affect bullying?
Bullying involves relationships between:
Bullies.
Victims.
Bystanders.
Friends.
Peer groups.
The internal working model may influence whether a child:
Trusts peers.
Responds aggressively.
Seeks adult support.
Recognises social boundaries.
Feels confident in friendships.
Expects rejection.
Myron-Wilson and Smith
Myron-Wilson and Smith investigated associations between attachment and bullying.
Their findings suggested that:
Securely attached children were less likely to be involved in bullying.
Insecure-avoidant children were more likely to be victims.
Insecure-resistant children were more likely to be bullies.
These findings support the proposal that early attachment may influence later peer relationships.
AQA mark-scheme guidance specifically identifies friendship patterns and bullying as relevant childhood relationships.
Explaining secure children’s behaviour
Securely attached children may be less likely to become involved in bullying because they may:
Form more supportive friendships.
Seek help from trusted adults.
Communicate effectively.
Feel less need to dominate peers.
Manage conflict more successfully.
Possess a positive internal working model.
Explaining avoidant victims
An insecure-avoidant child may be more vulnerable to victimisation if they:
Find it difficult to ask for help.
Avoid discussing distress.
Have fewer close friendships.
Appear isolated.
Expect others to be rejecting.
A lack of support may make continuing victimisation more likely.
This is only one possible explanation.
Bullying is also influenced by:
School culture.
Group norms.
Supervision.
Social status.
Individual personality.
Wider family experiences.
Explaining resistant bullies
An insecure-resistant child may display bullying behaviour if they:
Have difficulty regulating strong emotions.
Respond aggressively to perceived rejection.
Seek control in uncertain relationships.
Struggle to trust peers.
Demand attention or reassurance.
Again, attachment is not the only possible cause.
Association, not proof
Myron-Wilson and Smith’s findings show an association between attachment and bullying roles.
They do not prove that attachment caused the bullying behaviour.
Alternative explanations include:
Temperament.
Parenting continuing throughout childhood.
Family conflict.
School experiences.
Peer-group influence.
Existing behavioural difficulties.
The internal working model and friendship experiences
Example of a positive model
Grace’s caregiver responded consistently when she was distressed.
At school, Grace trusts her friends, asks for support when needed and is able to resolve disagreements.
The internal working model could explain this because:
Grace learned that other people can be dependable.
She sees herself as worthy of support.
She expects communication to be effective.
These expectations guide her friendships.
Example of an avoidant model
Harvey’s early attempts to seek comfort were often rejected.
He now avoids telling friends when he is upset and withdraws when relationships become close.
The internal working model could explain this because:
Harvey may expect other people to reject emotional needs.
He protects himself by avoiding dependence.
His emotional distance may make close friendships difficult.
Example of an inconsistent model
Aisha’s early caregiver responded unpredictably.
Aisha becomes very worried when a friend spends time with someone else and repeatedly asks whether the friendship is ending.
The internal working model could explain this because:
Early care was inconsistent.
Aisha expects relationships to be unstable.
She seeks reassurance to reduce fear of rejection.
Development can change
Suppose Aisha later forms a stable and supportive friendship.
Repeated experiences of:
Reliability.
Acceptance.
Honest communication.
Successful conflict resolution.
may modify her earlier expectations.
The internal working model should therefore be treated as changeable rather than permanently fixed.
Early attachment and adult romantic relationships
Applying the model to adulthood
The internal working model may influence how adults approach romantic relationships.
It may affect:
Trust.
Emotional intimacy.
Commitment.
Reactions to separation.
Jealousy.
Comfort with dependence.
Conflict resolution.
Expectations of support.
A person may use early relationship expectations when interpreting a partner’s behaviour.
Secure early attachment and romantic relationships
A secure internal working model may support:
Comfort with intimacy.
Trust in a partner.
Confidence that support will be available.
Open communication.
Appropriate independence.
Effective conflict resolution.
Longer-lasting relationships.
A securely attached person can usually value closeness without believing that every brief separation threatens the relationship.
Insecure-avoidant attachment and adult relationships
A person with avoidant expectations may:
Feel uncomfortable with emotional intimacy.
Avoid depending on a partner.
Find it difficult to disclose feelings.
Withdraw during conflict.
Emphasise independence.
Doubt whether partners can be trusted.
This behaviour may protect the person from expected rejection but can also make intimacy more difficult.
Insecure-resistant attachment and adult relationships
A person with resistant or anxious expectations may:
Strongly desire closeness.
Worry that the partner will leave.
Seek frequent reassurance.
Experience jealousy.
Interpret ambiguous behaviour as rejection.
Find separation particularly distressing.
The person may seek support while remaining uncertain that it will be provided consistently.
Hazan and Shaver’s Love Quiz
Aim
Hazan and Shaver investigated whether adult romantic relationships reflected attachment patterns similar to those observed in infancy.
Method
They published a questionnaire known as the Love Quiz in an American newspaper.
Respondents answered questions about:
Their most important romantic relationship.
Trust.
Jealousy.
Fear of closeness.
Attitudes towards love.
Their childhood relationships with caregivers.
They selected the description that best matched their experience of romantic relationships.
These descriptions broadly corresponded to:
Secure attachment.
Avoidant attachment.
Anxious or resistant attachment.
Findings
Securely attached adults were more likely to describe relationships as:
Happy.
Trusting.
Friendly.
Supportive.
Longer lasting.
Avoidant adults were more likely to report:
Discomfort with closeness.
Difficulty trusting.
Fear of intimacy.
Greater emotional distance.
Anxious or resistant adults were more likely to report:
Obsession with the partner.
Jealousy.
Emotional intensity.
Fear of rejection.
A strong desire for closeness.
Conclusion
Hazan and Shaver concluded that early attachment patterns may provide a model for adult romantic relationships.
The findings are consistent with Bowlby’s continuity hypothesis.
Why this supports the internal working model
The study found that adults’ romantic experiences were related to:
Their reported attachment style.
Their memories of parental relationships.
Their expectations about love.
This supports the idea that early experiences contribute to a relationship template that continues into adulthood.
A limitation of the Love Quiz
The study relied on self-report.
Respondents had to:
Describe their current or previous relationships.
Recall early family experiences.
Select one attachment description.
Their answers may have been influenced by:
Social desirability.
Poor memory.
Current mood.
A recent relationship breakdown.
The desire to present themselves positively.
Difficulty fitting complex experiences into one category.
The findings therefore support continuity but do not prove it.
Adult attachment classifications
Researchers may assess adult attachment through:
Questionnaires.
Interviews.
Reports of romantic relationships.
Observations of parenting.
Accounts of childhood experiences.
Adult patterns are not simply infant behaviours repeated in adulthood.
An adult does not show attachment by crying during the Strange Situation.
Instead, researchers examine:
Comfort with intimacy.
Expectations of support.
Responses to rejection.
Descriptions of attachment experiences.
The organisation and consistency of relationship memories.
The Adult Attachment Interview
What is the Adult Attachment Interview?
The Adult Attachment Interview, or AAI, asks adults to describe and evaluate their childhood attachment experiences.
The interviewer may ask about:
Relationships with caregivers.
Separation.
Rejection.
Comfort.
Loss.
The effect of childhood experiences.
Researchers consider not only what happened but how coherently the adult discusses those experiences.
Adult classifications
Responses may be classified using categories including:
Autonomous-secure.
Insecure-dismissing.
Insecure-preoccupied.
Unresolved.
These categories are not exactly the same as infant classifications, but they represent related ways of organising attachment experiences.
Main and colleagues
Research using the Adult Attachment Interview has found continuity between adults’ attachment representations and attachment behaviour within their families.
This supports the proposal that early attachment may influence:
Adult expectations.
Adult behaviour.
Later parenting.
The official AQA specimen mark scheme identifies the Adult Attachment Interview, Hazan and Shaver and parenting as relevant research into adult relationships.
Evaluating the AAI
A strength is that a structured interview allows detailed accounts rather than restricting people to brief questionnaire responses.
However:
Classification requires interpretation.
Adults may not remember infancy accurately.
Current relationships may affect childhood memories.
The interview measures present representations, not early attachment directly.
Interviewer expectations could influence coding.
Early attachment and parenting
The internal working model as a model for caregiving
Early attachment may influence how adults care for their own children.
A person who experienced sensitive care may have learned that a caregiver should:
Notice infant signals.
Respond consistently.
Offer comfort.
Encourage exploration.
Remain emotionally available.
This provides a possible model for later parenting.
Positive continuity
An adult with a positive internal working model may:
Feel comfortable with closeness.
Respond sensitively to crying.
Interpret an infant’s behaviour accurately.
Believe that emotional support is important.
Provide a secure base.
Their child may then be more likely to develop a secure attachment.
Less secure continuity
An adult whose early caregiver was rejecting may:
Find closeness uncomfortable.
Struggle to respond to emotional distress.
Encourage independence too early.
Withdraw during difficult interactions.
An adult whose caregiver was inconsistent may:
Respond unpredictably.
Become highly anxious about the child.
Find separation especially difficult.
Alternate between overinvolvement and unavailability.
These are possible patterns, not unavoidable outcomes.
Intergenerational continuity
Intergenerational continuity refers to a pattern being repeated from one generation to the next.
The proposed process is:
Person’s early attachment → internal working model → later parenting behaviour → child’s attachment
This may help explain similarities between:
A parent’s childhood attachment experience.
Their approach to caregiving.
Their own infant’s attachment pattern.
Quinton and colleagues
Quinton and colleagues studied women who had experienced institutional care during childhood.
As adults, some experienced greater difficulties in parenting and relationships than women who had not been raised in institutions.
However, outcomes were not identical for every participant.
Supportive adult relationships were associated with better outcomes.
This suggests that:
Early adversity may influence later parenting.
The influence is not completely irreversible.
Later relationships can modify the internal working model.
Evidence from institutionalisation
Children who experienced severely deprived institutional care sometimes showed continuing difficulties with selective attachments and social relationships.
However, many improved after adoption into stable families.
This evidence from children adopted following institutional care shows both continuity and change.
It supports the importance of early experience while challenging the claim that the future is fixed.
Childhood and adult relationships compared
Later relationship | Possible influence of a secure IWM | Possible influence of an insecure IWM |
Childhood friendships | Trust, cooperation, empathy and support-seeking | Withdrawal, dependence, mistrust or conflict |
Bullying | Lower likelihood of involvement | Possible vulnerability to victimisation or aggressive behaviour |
Adult romantic relationships | Comfort with intimacy and trust | Avoidance of closeness or anxiety about rejection |
Parenting | Sensitive and consistent caregiving | Difficulty responding consistently or comfortably to closeness |
Professional support relationships | Willingness to seek appropriate help | Avoidance of help or repeated reassurance-seeking |
The table describes possible tendencies rather than guaranteed outcomes.
Applying the internal working model
Application structure
A strong application answer should:
Identify the early attachment experience.
Explain the expectation created by that experience.
Link the expectation to later behaviour.
Use evidence from the scenario.
Avoid deterministic wording.
Application example 1: friendship
Nadia’s caregiver responded warmly and consistently during infancy.
As a teenager, Nadia trusts her friends and feels comfortable asking for help.
A developed answer could explain:
Nadia’s responsive early care may have produced a positive internal working model. She expects other people to be dependable and sees herself as worthy of support. These expectations could explain why she trusts her friends and seeks help when needed.
Application example 2: romantic avoidance
Elliot’s caregiver regularly rejected him when he sought comfort.
As an adult, Elliot avoids discussing emotions and withdraws when a romantic relationship becomes close.
A developed answer could explain:
Repeated rejection may have produced an internal working model in which other people are expected to be unavailable. Elliot may avoid emotional intimacy to protect himself from anticipated rejection.
Application example 3: anxious relationships
Rosa experienced unpredictable care.
As an adult, she repeatedly asks her partner whether the relationship is secure and becomes distressed by short separations.
A developed answer could explain:
Rosa may have developed an internal working model in which close relationships are unreliable. Her repeated reassurance-seeking and strong separation anxiety may reflect expectations formed through inconsistent early care.
Application example 4: parenting
Sam experienced sensitive and dependable care as an infant.
When his own baby cries, Sam responds calmly and consistently.
The IWM could explain this because:
Sam’s early relationship provided a model of responsive caregiving.
He expects comfort to be effective.
He applies this model when caring for his child.
Application example 5: later change
Mei experienced insecure early attachment but later formed a stable and supportive relationship with a foster carer.
As an adult, she forms trusting friendships.
This does not contradict the internal working model completely.
The later relationship may have:
Challenged earlier expectations.
Provided a new model of dependable care.
Helped Mei revise her view of herself and other people.
Evaluating the influence of early attachment
Strength: evidence from childhood relationships
Research has found associations between attachment and:
Friendship quality.
Social competence.
Bullying.
Peer acceptance.
Myron-Wilson and Smith’s findings are consistent with the prediction that the internal working model influences childhood relationships.
Secure children were less likely to be involved in bullying, while insecure patterns were associated with different bullying roles.
This supports the continuity hypothesis.
Limitation: cause and effect cannot be established
Most relevant research is correlational.
Researchers measure:
Early attachment.
Later relationship outcomes.
An association does not show that early attachment caused the later behaviour.
For example, a relationship between insecure attachment and bullying could be explained by:
Temperament.
Continuing parenting.
Family conflict.
Social disadvantage.
School environment.
The internal working model is one possible explanation, but it is not the only one.
Temperament as an alternative explanation
Temperament refers to biologically influenced patterns of emotional response.
An infant who is naturally more sociable may:
Appear securely attached.
Find it easier to make friends.
Develop positive romantic relationships.
The apparent continuity might therefore result partly from stable temperament rather than an internal working model.
Continuing environmental conditions
The child’s environment may remain similar over time.
For example:
Sensitive parents may continue providing support throughout childhood.
Family conflict may continue.
Social advantage may provide greater relationship opportunities.
The child may remain within the same community.
Later relationships could reflect the continuing environment rather than an infant model formed years earlier.
Strength: evidence from adult romantic relationships
Hazan and Shaver found patterns consistent with secure, avoidant and anxious attachment in adult romantic relationships.
The similarity between infant and adult patterns supports the idea that early attachment provides a relationship prototype.
However, the evidence is based largely on adults’ current reports and memories.
Limitation: retrospective measurement
Adults are often asked to remember childhood experiences.
Retrospective data may be inaccurate because:
Early events are forgotten.
Memories are reconstructed.
Current relationships affect how childhood is interpreted.
People may remember examples that fit their current self-image.
A person in an unhappy relationship may remember childhood more negatively than they would at another time.
This makes it difficult to establish the true quality of early attachment.
Limitation: self-report bias
Questionnaires and interviews are affected by:
Social desirability.
Response bias.
Misunderstanding questions.
Simplifying complex relationships.
Participants lacking insight into their own behaviour.
For example, a respondent may describe a relationship as secure because that appears socially desirable.
Difficulty measuring the internal working model
The IWM is a hypothetical mental construct.
It cannot be observed directly.
Researchers infer it from:
Questionnaire responses.
Interview accounts.
Attachment classifications.
Relationship behaviour.
This creates a problem of validity.
The evidence may show a connection between early and later relationships without demonstrating that the internal working model is the mechanism responsible.
Attachment may be relationship-specific
An infant may show different attachment patterns with different caregivers.
Similarly, an adult may behave differently in different relationships.
For example, a person may:
Trust close friends.
Avoid romantic intimacy.
Feel secure with one partner but insecure with another.
Parent differently from how they behave towards colleagues.
This suggests that attachment is not always one fixed quality applied equally to every relationship.
Attachment categories may oversimplify adult relationships
Romantic relationships are complex.
Placing adults into secure, avoidant or anxious categories may ignore:
Changes over time.
Differences between partners.
Cultural expectations.
Relationship history.
The effects of current stress.
Variation within each category.
Dimensional measures may sometimes represent relationship behaviour more accurately than rigid categories.
Later experience challenges determinism
Evidence of recovery following:
Adoption.
Supportive foster care.
Positive friendships.
Stable romantic relationships.
suggests that early insecurity does not permanently determine later relationships.
The recovery shown by some children after early attachment disruption and deprivation supports developmental flexibility.
The internal working model may be revised
A useful way to understand the IWM is as a working model rather than a permanent recording.
It can be:
Reinforced.
Challenged.
Expanded.
Revised.
For example, someone expecting rejection may gradually learn to trust through a consistent adult relationship.
This makes the theory less deterministic.
Research may support bidirectional influence
Later relationships may influence how people remember early relationships.
The proposed direction is not necessarily only:
Early attachment → later relationship
It may also be:
Current relationship experience → current interpretation of early attachment
For example, an adult in a secure romantic relationship may reinterpret difficult childhood experiences in a more balanced way.
Social sensitivity
Research into early attachment can be socially sensitive.
It may lead to:
Parents being blamed for adult relationship difficulties.
People being labelled as permanently insecure.
Adopted or care-experienced individuals being viewed as damaged.
Adults believing their relationship future is fixed.
Mothers receiving disproportionate blame.
Researchers should emphasise that:
A primary caregiver can be any gender.
Attachment is only one influence.
Later change is possible.
Group-level findings do not predict every individual.
Practical applications
Understanding the possible continuity of attachment has influenced:
Early-years support.
Parenting programmes.
Adoption preparation.
Foster-care planning.
Relationship counselling.
Interventions for children experiencing bullying.
Efforts to provide stable caregivers in institutions.
A practitioner might help a person identify unhelpful expectations such as:
“Nobody can be trusted.”
New relationship experiences can then provide evidence that challenges the expectation.
Practical usefulness increases the value of attachment research, although it does not prove that every part of Bowlby’s explanation is correct.
Evaluating evidence from childhood and adulthood
Childhood evidence
Advantages include:
Behaviour may be observed closer to the original attachment period.
Peer outcomes can be measured through teachers, parents and children.
The time between early attachment and outcome is shorter than in adult research.
Limitations include:
Children may struggle to report relationship experiences accurately.
Teachers may interpret behaviour subjectively.
Bullying is influenced by school conditions.
Early and later attachment may be measured using different methods.
Adult evidence
Advantages include:
Adults can describe thoughts and relationship experiences in detail.
Romantic and parenting relationships can be studied directly.
Researchers can assess continuity over a long period.
Limitations include:
Long delays make accurate recall difficult.
Self-report may be biased.
Adult relationships are influenced by many intervening experiences.
Establishing cause and effect becomes increasingly difficult.
A balanced conclusion
The evidence generally supports an association between early attachment and later relationships.
Secure early attachment is linked with:
Better-quality friendships.
Lower involvement in bullying.
Greater trust in romantic relationships.
More responsive parenting.
Insecure attachment is associated with a greater risk of:
Peer difficulties.
Bullying involvement.
Avoidance of intimacy.
Anxiety about rejection.
Parenting difficulties.
However, these findings do not demonstrate that early attachment determines later life.
The most reasonable conclusion is:
Early attachment contributes to an internal working model that may guide later relationships, but the model is influenced and potentially revised by temperament, continuing circumstances and new relationship experiences.
Planning an extended answer
A strong extended response could follow this structure:
Introduce the continuity hypothesis.
Explain the internal working model.
Explain its model of the self and other people.
Apply it to childhood friendships.
Use Myron-Wilson and Smith as evidence.
Explain influence on adult romantic relationships.
Use Hazan and Shaver as evidence.
Explain influence on parenting.
Evaluate correlational evidence and causality.
Discuss retrospective self-report.
Consider temperament and continuing environments.
Discuss determinism and later change.
Reach a balanced conclusion.
Hints from the Examiner Reports đź’ˇ
Examiner hint:Â Focus on the relationship period named in the question. Research into adult romantic relationships will not automatically answer a question about childhood friendships.
Examiner hint: Shape Bowlby’s theory to the question. Do not simply describe the internal working model. Explain how its expectations affect friendship, bullying, romantic behaviour or parenting.
Examiner hint:Â Application must use the scenario. Identify the early experience, the expectation it creates and the later behaviour it may explain.
Examiner hint:Â When discussing childhood relationships, friendship and bullying evidence is directly relevant. Hazan and Shaver should only be used if explicitly linked to childhood relationships.
Examiner hint:Â When discussing adult relationships, focus on romantic partners and parenting rather than repeating descriptions of infant attachment behaviour.
Examiner hint:Â Avoid deterministic statements. An early insecure attachment may increase the likelihood of difficulties but does not make them inevitable.
Examiner hint:Â Methodological evaluation must affect the conclusion. For example, explain why retrospective self-report makes continuity difficult to establish accurately.
Examiner hint:Â Distinguish an association from cause and effect. A correlation between attachment and later relationships could be explained by temperament or continuing family circumstances.
The Autumn 2021 examiner report noted that many answers failed to remain focused on childhood relationships. Stronger responses used the internal working model and applied its implications directly to the scenario.
The corresponding mark scheme also identified determinism, self-report, retrospective assessment and difficulty measuring the internal working model as important discussion points.
Common Mistakes ⚠️
Mistake: Saying early attachment determines every later relationship
Why this is incorrect:
The internal working model creates expectations, but later experiences can modify them.
How to improve:
Use probabilistic language such as “may influence” or “is associated with”.
Mistake: Describing the IWM only as a model of other people
Why this is incomplete:
It also contains expectations about the self and how relationships work.
How to improve:
Include all three elements:
The self.
Other people.
Relationships.
Mistake: Saying the IWM is a conscious set of rules
Why this is inaccurate:
It is usually described as an underlying mental representation or schema.
How to improve:
Explain how it guides interpretation and behaviour without requiring deliberate thought.
Mistake: Saying securely attached children never experience friendship difficulties
Why this is incorrect:
Attachment is one influence among many.
How to improve:
State that secure attachment is associated with a lower risk of difficulties.
Mistake: Assuming insecure-avoidant children cannot make friends
Why this is too absolute:
Avoidant expectations may make emotional closeness more difficult, but positive friendships remain possible.
How to improve:
Describe tendencies rather than certainties.
Mistake: Confusing insecure-avoidant and insecure-resistant outcomes
Why this is incorrect:
Avoidance is associated with emotional distance, while resistance is associated with anxiety and conflicted closeness.
How to improve:
Link each pattern to its likely relationship expectations.
Mistake: Writing about adult romance in a childhood-relationships question
Why this loses focus:
The material does not answer the named part of the specification.
How to improve:
Use friendship, bullying and peer relationships.
Mistake: Writing only about childhood friendships in an adult-relationships question
Why this is incomplete:
Adult relationships include romantic partners and relationships with the person’s own children.
How to improve:
Use Hazan and Shaver, the Adult Attachment Interview or parenting evidence.
Mistake: Saying Hazan and Shaver observed infants
Why this is incorrect:
They used an adult questionnaire about romantic relationships and attachment experiences.
How to improve:
Describe the Love Quiz as self-report research.
Mistake: Treating adult and infant attachment behaviour as identical
Why this is inaccurate:
The patterns are conceptually related but expressed through different behaviours.
How to improve:
Discuss trust, intimacy and reassurance in adults rather than separation crying.
Mistake: Saying a correlation proves the internal working model
Why this is incorrect:
Other factors may explain both early and later relationships.
How to improve:
Discuss temperament, continuing parenting or wider social circumstances.
Mistake: Giving a generic self-report criticism
Why this is incomplete:
The consequence for the conclusion must be explained.
How to improve:
State that inaccurate recall of childhood attachment weakens evidence for continuity.
Mistake: Ignoring later relationship experiences
Why this produces an overly deterministic answer:
Supportive relationships can challenge insecure expectations.
How to improve:
Explain that the model can be revised.
Mistake: Blaming mothers for adult relationship problems
Why this is socially sensitive and inaccurate:
The primary caregiver can be any gender, and many factors influence later relationships.
How to improve:
Use gender-neutral language and recognise developmental complexity.
Exam-Style Questions ✍️
Question 1
Which one of the following best describes an internal working model?
A. A direct memory of every event experienced during infancy
B. A mental representation of the self, other people and relationships
C. A biological reflex causing separation anxiety
D. A questionnaire used to classify adult attachment
[1 mark]
reveal mark scheme and indicative content
Answer: B. A mental representation of the self, other people and relationships
Question 2
Define the continuity hypothesis.
[2 marks]
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Mark scheme
AO1 = 2
2 marks:Â Clear definition stating that the quality or pattern of early attachment is expected to continue or influence relationships later in life.
1 mark:Â Limited or partial definition.
Indicative content
Early attachment provides a basis for later relationships.
Secure early attachments are associated with more positive later relationships.
Insecure early attachments may be associated with difficulties in later relationships.
The concept is closely linked to Bowlby's internal working model.
AQA examiner guidance recognises the continuity hypothesis as relevant when explaining how early attachment may influence later development and relationships.
Example answer
The continuity hypothesis is the idea that the quality of a person's early attachment tends to be reflected in the quality of their relationships later in life.
Question 3
Explain how a secure early attachment may influence childhood friendships.
[4 marks]
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Mark scheme
AO1 = 4
Award 1 mark for each relevant point, up to 4 marks.
Indicative content
A secure early attachment contributes to a positive internal working model.
The child develops expectations that other people are trustworthy and supportive.
These expectations may be transferred to peer relationships.
Securely attached children may therefore find it easier to trust others, cooperate and form close friendships.
Secure attachment has also been associated with lower involvement in bullying.
AQA specifically credits the internal working model as a blueprint for later childhood relationships and research linking attachment type to peer relationships and bullying.
Example answer
A secure early attachment may produce a positive internal working model in which the child expects other people to be trustworthy and supportive. This model acts as a blueprint for later relationships. The child may therefore find it easier to trust peers, seek support and develop positive friendships.
Question 4
Outline one finding from research into attachment and bullying.
[3 marks]
reveal mark scheme and indicative content
Mark scheme
AO1 = 3
Award credit for a clear and elaborated research finding.
Indicative content
For example, Myron-Wilson and Smith:
Attachment type was associated with involvement in bullying.
Insecure-avoidant children were more likely to be victims of bullying.
Insecure-resistant children were more likely to be bullies.
Securely attached children were generally less likely to be involved in bullying.
AQA explicitly identifies these findings from Myron-Wilson and Smith as relevant evidence for the influence of early attachment on childhood relationships.
Example answer
Myron-Wilson and Smith found an association between attachment type and bullying. Insecure-avoidant children were more likely to be victims of bullying, whereas insecure-resistant children were more likely to be bullies.
Question 5
Marta experienced consistent and responsive care during infancy. At secondary school, she trusts her friends and feels comfortable seeking help when she is worried.
Use the internal working model to explain Marta’s behaviour.
[4 marks]
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Mark scheme
AO2 = 4
Award 1 mark each for:
Marta's consistent and responsive early care is likely to contribute to a positive internal working model.
This provides a mental blueprint for later relationships.
She may expect other people to be dependable and supportive.
This explains why she trusts her friends and is comfortable seeking their help.
Example answer
Marta's responsive early care may have produced a positive internal working model. This gives her a mental blueprint in which close relationships are expected to be supportive and dependable. She therefore carries these expectations into her friendships, explaining why she trusts her friends and feels comfortable asking them for help.
AQA states that a loving and secure first attachment can produce a template for successful relationships with peers and others later in life.
Question 6
Owen’s early caregiver often rejected his attempts to seek comfort. As an adult, Owen avoids discussing his emotions and withdraws when romantic relationships become close.
Use the internal working model to explain Owen’s behaviour.
[4 marks]
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Mark scheme
AO2 = 4
Award 1 mark each for:
Rejection by his early caregiver may contribute to a negative or insecure internal working model.
Owen may develop expectations that seeking emotional closeness leads to rejection.
This model acts as a blueprint for later romantic relationships.
Avoiding emotional discussion and withdrawing when relationships become close are consistent with these expectations.
Example answer
Owen's early experiences may have produced a negative internal working model in which he expects emotional closeness to result in rejection. This model can influence his expectations in adult relationships. He may therefore protect himself by avoiding discussion of emotions and withdrawing when romantic relationships become close.
AQA specifically credits links between insecure early attachment and later fear of intimacy or lack of commitment when applying the internal working model to adult relationships.
Question 7
A psychologist obtained the following results:
Early attachment classification | Mean friendship-quality score |
Secure | 18.7 |
Insecure-avoidant | 12.4 |
Insecure-resistant | 11.8 |
The highest possible friendship-quality score was 20.
Describe the pattern shown in the results. Explain one conclusion the psychologist could draw.
[5 marks]
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Mark scheme
AO2/AO3 = 5
Award up to 3 marks for describing the pattern and up to 2 marks for an explained conclusion.
Indicative content
Pattern
Securely attached children have the highest friendship-quality score, 18.7 out of 20.
Insecure-avoidant children score substantially lower, 12.4.
Insecure-resistant children have the lowest score, 11.8.
The two insecure groups have relatively similar scores compared with the secure group.
Conclusion
Secure early attachment is associated with higher-quality later friendships.
This is consistent with the continuity hypothesis and internal working model.
The findings show an association and do not by themselves establish that attachment type caused the friendship differences.
Example answer
The secure group has the highest friendship-quality score at 18.7, compared with 12.4 for the insecure-avoidant group and 11.8 for the insecure-resistant group. Both insecure groups therefore have substantially lower scores than the secure group. The psychologist could conclude that secure early attachment is associated with better-quality childhood friendships, which is consistent with the continuity hypothesis. However, the results alone do not show that early attachment caused the difference.
Question 8
Explain one methodological limitation of research into the influence of early attachment on adult romantic relationships.
[4 marks]
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Mark scheme
AO3 = 4
Award credit for one clearly developed methodological limitation.
Indicative content
For example, retrospective self-report:
Research may ask adults to remember their childhood attachment experiences.
Memories of experiences many years earlier may be inaccurate or reconstructed.
Current relationship experiences may influence how participants remember childhood.
This reduces the validity of conclusions about the relationship between genuine early attachment and later romantic relationships.
Also credit other appropriate limitations, such as social desirability or the inability of correlational research to establish cause and effect.
AQA specifically accepts problems with self-report, subjectivity, social desirability and retrospective assessment of early attachment when evaluating research in this area.
Example answer
One limitation is that some studies rely on adults retrospectively reporting their early attachment experiences. Memories from infancy or childhood may be inaccurate or influenced by current relationships. Therefore, the attachment classification reported by an adult may not accurately represent their genuine early attachment, reducing the validity of any association with romantic relationships.
Question 9
Discuss how early attachment may influence parenting in adulthood.
[8 marks]
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Mark scheme
AO1 = 4, AO3 = 4
7 to 8 marks:Â Knowledge of how early attachment may influence later parenting is accurate and detailed. Discussion is effective and focused. Appropriate attachment terminology is used throughout.
5 to 6 marks:Â Relevant knowledge and some effective discussion are present, although detail or development is occasionally lacking.
3 to 4 marks:Â Some relevant knowledge is present, but the response is mainly descriptive or discussion is limited.
1 to 2 marks:Â Very limited knowledge or discussion.
0 marks:Â No relevant content.
Indicative content
AO1
Bowlby's internal working model proposes that the first attachment provides a mental representation or blueprint for later relationships.
This includes expectations about caregiving and the person's own role as a parent.
A secure early attachment may provide a model of sensitive, responsive caregiving that can be carried forward into parenting.
Poor or insecure early attachment may produce less positive expectations about close relationships and could contribute to difficulties responding sensitively to one's own children.
This represents continuity between attachment experiences across generations.
AQA explicitly states that the internal working model can influence relationships with one's own children and a person's success as a parent.
AO3
Harlow's research provides some support for continuity in parenting, as monkeys exposed to severely disrupted early attachment experiences later showed difficulties in their own child-rearing behaviour.
However, Harlow's evidence comes from rhesus monkeys, so generalisation to complex human parenting is limited.
The relationship is not necessarily deterministic. Later supportive relationships and experiences may alter a person's internal working model.
Research showing an association between early attachment and later parenting cannot automatically establish cause and effect.
Other factors, including adult relationships and current circumstances, may influence parenting independently of early attachment.
The internal working model itself is a hypothetical construct and is difficult to measure directly.
Example answer
Bowlby's internal working model suggests that an infant's first attachment creates a mental blueprint for later relationships. A child who experiences sensitive and responsive care may develop expectations that close relationships are safe and supportive. When they become a parent, this model may influence them to respond sensitively and consistently to their own child. In contrast, poor early care may create less positive expectations about relationships and could contribute to difficulties providing sensitive care. This would produce continuity between generations.
There is some supporting evidence from Harlow's research because monkeys that experienced seriously disrupted early attachment later showed difficulties in their own parenting behaviour. However, this evidence comes from animals and may not generalise directly to human parenting. The relationship is also not deterministic. Later relationships and life experiences can change people's expectations, so insecure attachment does not mean someone will inevitably become an ineffective parent. In addition, research in this area often shows correlations, meaning that other variables could contribute to both early attachment and later parenting.
Question 10
Discuss the influence of early attachment on childhood and adult relationships. Refer to the internal working model in your answer.
[16 marks]
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