Behaviour Modification in Custody | AQA A-Level Psychology Revision
- Revision Notes
- Aug 7
- 30 min read
Updated: Aug 14
For 7182 specification, first teach in September 2025
AQA A-Level Psychology | Free Revision Notes
Estimated study time: 65 to 80 minutes
Behaviour modification in custody A-Level Psychology revision examines how principles of operant conditioning may be used to increase desirable behaviour within prisons and other secure institutions. In a token economy, prisoners receive tokens for clearly specified conduct and exchange them for valued rewards or privileges.
You will learn how target behaviours, positive reinforcement, secondary reinforcers and reward menus work together. You will also evaluate whether token economies produce genuine rehabilitation or merely short-term compliance inside prison. This lesson develops rehabilitation as an aim of imprisonment [Lesson 10: Custodial sentencing] and prepares you for cognitive and behavioural methods of managing aggression [Lesson 12: Anger management].
The AQA specification requires behaviour modification in custody as a way of dealing with offending behaviour.
Learning Objectives 🎯
By the end of this revision page, you should be able to:
Define behaviour modification.
Explain how operant conditioning is used in custody.
Explain positive reinforcement and token economies.
Distinguish tokens from the rewards for which they are exchanged.
Design a simple behaviour modification programme.
Apply reinforcement principles to unfamiliar prison scenarios.
Evaluate behaviour modification using evidence, ethical issues and practical limitations.
Distinguish improvements in institutional behaviour from long-term rehabilitation.
Revision Notes 📚
Behaviour Modification in Custody A-Level Psychology Revision Focus
Behaviour modification is the systematic use of learning principles to change observable behaviour.
Within custody, behaviour modification aims to:
Increase desirable conduct.
Reduce disruptive conduct.
Improve cooperation.
Make the institution safer.
Encourage participation in education or treatment.
Establish predictable routines.
Support the rehabilitation of prisoners.
The approach focuses on behaviour that can be:
Observed.
Clearly defined.
Recorded.
Reinforced.
Compared over time.
Examples might include:
Attending education sessions.
Completing assigned work.
Following instructions.
Arriving on time.
Waiting appropriately at mealtimes.
Speaking without shouting.
Keeping a cell area orderly.
Cooperating with staff.
Avoiding aggressive behaviour.
Participating constructively in group activities.
AQA’s June 2024 mark scheme describes behaviour modification as the use of operant-conditioning techniques to encourage positive behaviour. It specifically identifies token economies in which secondary reinforcers are earned for desired conduct and exchanged for valued rewards.
The Behaviourist Basis
Operant Conditioning
Behaviour modification is based on operant conditioning.
Operant conditioning proposes that behaviour is shaped by its consequences.
The central principle is:
Behaviour followed by a reinforcing consequence becomes more likely to occur again.
For example:
A prisoner attends an education session.
A token is awarded immediately.
The token contributes towards a valued privilege.
Attendance is followed by a rewarding consequence.
Future attendance becomes more likely.
This builds on learning through reinforcement and consequences [Lesson 2: Operant conditioning].
Antecedent, Behaviour and Consequence
Behaviour modification can be understood through three components:
Antecedent
Behaviour
Consequence
Component | Meaning | Example |
Antecedent | What occurs before the behaviour | The prisoner is asked to attend a workshop |
Behaviour | The observable action | The prisoner arrives on time and participates |
Consequence | What follows the behaviour | The prisoner receives two tokens |
The consequence is intended to influence whether the behaviour happens again.
Focus on Observable Behaviour
Behaviour modification concentrates on observable actions rather than attempting to infer:
Hidden motives.
Unconscious conflicts.
Personality traits.
Moral beliefs.
Cognitive distortions.
For example, the programme might record:
The prisoner completed five education sessions.
It would be harder to record objectively:
The prisoner has become a more responsible person.
This emphasis on observable behaviour can increase objectivity, but it may also make the programme superficial.
Reinforcement
What Is Reinforcement?
A reinforcer is a consequence that increases the likelihood of the behaviour it follows.
The defining feature is not whether the consequence appears pleasant.
The defining feature is:
Does the consequence make the behaviour more likely to happen again?
Positive Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement occurs when a rewarding stimulus is added after a behaviour, increasing the likelihood that the behaviour will be repeated.
The word positive means that something is added.
For example:
A prisoner receives a token after completing assigned work.
The completed work is the desired behaviour.
The token is added afterwards.
Future completion should become more likely.
Positive reinforcement is the main principle used in token-economy programmes.
Positive Reinforcement Is Not Praise Alone
Praise can act as a positive reinforcer if it increases behaviour.
However, token economies usually use more systematic consequences.
These might include:
Tokens.
Points.
Credits.
Stars.
Recorded privileges.
The reward system is planned in advance rather than depending on occasional approval from individual staff.
Negative Reinforcement
Negative reinforcement occurs when something unpleasant is removed following a behaviour, making that behaviour more likely.
The word negative means removal.
It does not mean:
A harmful consequence.
A punishment.
Criticism.
Taking away privileges.
For example:
A repetitive warning sound stops when a required task is completed.
Completing the task becomes more likely because it removes the unpleasant sound.
Negative reinforcement is not usually the central feature of prison token economies. The safest AQA explanation focuses on positive reinforcement through tokens.
Reinforcement and Punishment
Reinforcement increases behaviour.
Punishment decreases behaviour.
Consequence | Effect on behaviour |
Positive reinforcement | Adds something rewarding to increase behaviour |
Negative reinforcement | Removes something unpleasant to increase behaviour |
Positive punishment | Adds an unpleasant consequence to reduce behaviour |
Negative punishment | Removes something valued to reduce behaviour |
A token economy is principally a reinforcement system rather than a punishment programme.
Response Cost
Some programmes may use response cost.
Response cost is a form of negative punishment in which something valued is removed after undesirable behaviour.
For example:
A prisoner loses a token after deliberately damaging communal property.
This may reduce the unwanted behaviour.
However, response cost should not replace the central logic of the token economy:
Reward clearly defined desirable behaviour.
A programme based mainly on removing tokens may become punitive rather than rehabilitative.
Token Economies
What Is a Token Economy?
A token economy is a structured behaviour-modification programme in which individuals receive tokens for performing specified desirable behaviours.
The tokens can later be exchanged for valued rewards or privileges.
The basic process is:
Target behaviour → token awarded → tokens accumulated → tokens exchanged for reward → target behaviour increases
Tokens might take the form of:
Points on a record.
Plastic counters.
Stamps.
Stars.
Credits stored electronically.
Marks on a behaviour chart.
The physical form is less important than the token’s agreed value.
Tokens as Secondary Reinforcers
A token is a secondary reinforcer, also called a conditioned reinforcer.
It is not usually valuable by itself.
It acquires value because it is associated with rewards the prisoner wants.
For example:
A plastic counter has little natural value, but it becomes valuable when ten counters can be exchanged for additional recreation time.
The token bridges the gap between:
The desired behaviour.
The later reward.
Backup Rewards
The items or privileges available in exchange for tokens are often described as backup reinforcers.
Examples may include:
Extra telephone time.
Additional recreational activity.
Preferred food.
Access to television.
Greater choice of activities.
Additional time in a communal area.
Extra access to approved reading material.
An additional or longer visit, where prison rules permit it.
The June 2024 mark scheme gives examples including extra phone calls, visits and special food.
For examination purposes, remember:
Token: The secondary reinforcer earned immediately.
Backup reward: The valued item or privilege obtained later.
Primary Reinforcers
A primary reinforcer satisfies a biological need and is naturally rewarding.
Examples include:
Food.
Drink.
Warmth.
Not every backup reward is technically a primary reinforcer.
For example:
Preferred food may act as a primary reinforcer.
Telephone access is better described as a valued privilege or conditioned reward.
The crucial AQA point is that tokens gain their value through association with rewards the prisoner values.
Designing a Token Economy
A successful token economy requires careful planning.
The main stages are:
Identify target behaviours.
Operationalise each behaviour.
Select appropriate tokens.
Create a reward menu.
Decide how many tokens each behaviour earns.
Decide how many tokens each reward costs.
Explain the programme clearly.
Deliver reinforcement promptly and consistently.
Record behaviour and rewards.
Review whether the behaviour is changing.
Stage 1: Identify Target Behaviours
A target behaviour is the conduct the programme aims to increase.
Suitable target behaviours should be:
Relevant.
Observable.
Specific.
Achievable.
Beneficial to the prisoner or institution.
Within the prisoner’s control.
Examples include:
Attending a workshop.
Completing a work task.
Waiting in a queue without shouting.
Following a reasonable staff instruction.
Participating in therapy.
Using non-aggressive language during disagreement.
Positive Target Behaviours
It is usually clearer to define what the prisoner should do rather than only what they should stop doing.
Weak target:
Do not behave badly.
Improved target:
Speak to staff without shouting during the morning meal period.
Weak target:
Stop being aggressive.
Improved target:
Use an agreed time-out strategy when a disagreement begins.
Positive target behaviours make it easier for staff to recognise when reinforcement should be given.
Stage 2: Operationalise the Behaviour
To operationalise a target behaviour means defining it in observable and measurable terms.
For example:
“Behave respectfully” is vague.
Different staff might interpret it differently.
A more operational definition is:
“Follow a staff instruction within two minutes without shouting, threatening or damaging property.”
This definition identifies:
What the person must do.
The time allowed.
Which behaviours must be absent.
Why Operationalisation Matters
Clear operational definitions improve:
Reliability.
Fairness.
Staff agreement.
Accurate record keeping.
Evaluation of programme effectiveness.
If one member of staff rewards a behaviour and another refuses to reward the same behaviour, the prisoner receives inconsistent consequences.
Stage 3: Select the Token
The token must be:
Easy to award.
Easy to count.
Difficult to copy or exchange unofficially.
Clearly connected with the reward system.
Accepted by everyone administering the programme.
Electronic points may be easier to monitor than physical counters.
The token itself must not be confused with the final reward.
Stage 4: Select Suitable Rewards
The reward menu should contain options that prisoners genuinely value.
A reward that has no value to the prisoner will not reinforce behaviour.
For example:
Additional reading time may reinforce someone who enjoys reading.
The same reward may have little effect on someone uninterested in books.
Suitable rewards should be:
Ethical.
Safe.
Realistically available.
Consistent with institutional rules.
Varied enough to reflect individual preferences.
Individual Differences in Rewards
Different prisoners may value:
Social contact.
Entertainment.
Food choices.
Exercise.
Education.
Privacy.
Recreation.
An individualised reward menu may increase effectiveness.
However, excessive individual variation may create perceptions of unfairness.
Stage 5: Decide the Exchange Rate
The programme must state:
How many tokens each behaviour earns.
How many tokens each reward costs.
Whether tokens expire.
Whether tokens may be saved.
Whether tokens can be lost.
When exchanges may occur.
For example:
Target behaviour | Tokens earned |
Attending an education session | 2 |
Completing assigned work | 2 |
Following the agreed queue procedure | 1 |
Completing a full week without threatening behaviour | 5 |
Reward | Token cost |
Additional recreation period | 5 |
Preferred approved snack | 4 |
Additional telephone time | 6 |
Access to a preferred activity | 8 |
The exact values are less important than clarity and consistency.
Stage 6: Explain the Programme
Prisoners need to know:
Which behaviours are rewarded.
What counts as successful performance.
How many tokens are awarded.
Which rewards are available.
When tokens can be exchanged.
What happens if there is disagreement.
Who records the tokens.
Unclear rules can produce:
Frustration.
Conflict.
Perceived unfairness.
Attempts to manipulate the system.
Reduced trust.
Stage 7: Deliver the Token Promptly
Reinforcement is most effective when it follows the behaviour promptly.
The prisoner should be able to connect:
“I received this token because I performed that behaviour.”
If the token is delayed for several days, the relationship may be less clear.
A staff member might state:
“You completed the workshop and participated appropriately, so you have earned two tokens.”
This makes the contingency explicit.
Contingency
A contingency is the relationship between a behaviour and its consequence.
In a token economy:
The token is contingent on the target behaviour.
The token should not be awarded:
Randomly.
Merely because staff like the prisoner.
Before the behaviour occurs.
For behaviour that was not part of the programme.
Stage 8: Apply the Programme Consistently
All participating staff should follow the same rules.
Consistency means that:
The same behaviour receives the same number of tokens.
Staff use the same operational definitions.
Rewards remain available as promised.
Records are accurate.
Rules are not changed unexpectedly.
Inconsistent reinforcement may weaken learning because the prisoner cannot predict which behaviour will be rewarded.
Staff Training
Staff may require training in:
Identifying target behaviours.
Delivering tokens immediately.
Giving clear feedback.
Avoiding personal bias.
Recording behaviour.
Handling disputes.
Applying any response-cost procedure fairly.
A token economy depends not only on the prisoner but also on the behaviour of staff.
Stage 9: Monitor the Programme
Behaviour should be measured before and during the intervention.
Possible measures include:
Number of aggressive incidents.
Number of completed sessions.
Attendance percentage.
Number of instructions followed.
Number of rule violations.
Number of positive staff interactions.
Baseline Measurement
A baseline is a measurement of behaviour before the programme begins.
For example:
During the two weeks before the token economy, a prisoner attended 30% of scheduled education sessions.
After the programme begins, attendance can be compared with the baseline.
Without a baseline, it is difficult to determine whether behaviour has improved.
Stage 10: Review and Adjust
A programme should be reviewed to determine:
Whether target behaviours are increasing.
Whether undesirable behaviours are decreasing.
Which rewards are effective.
Whether staff are applying the rules consistently.
Whether prisoners understand the system.
Whether any unfairness has developed.
Whether improvement continues without constant rewards.
A programme should not continue unchanged merely because it appears orderly.
Applying a Token Economy
Consider this scenario:
Vera frequently shouts at other prisoners while waiting for meals. She also refuses to attend education sessions.
A behaviour-modification programme could include:
Target behaviour 1
Vera waits in the meal queue without shouting or threatening others.
Reinforcement
A token is awarded immediately after the queue has been completed appropriately.
Target behaviour 2
Vera attends and completes an education session.
Reinforcement
Two tokens are awarded at the end of the session.
Backup rewards
Vera might exchange accumulated tokens for:
Extra telephone time.
An approved preferred activity.
Additional recreation.
A preferred food item.
This closely reflects the application accepted in AQA’s June 2024 mark scheme, which refers to rewarding conduct such as waiting in line and not shouting.
A Complete Applied Explanation
A strong application answer might state:
Vera’s appropriate queueing and calm speech would be operationalised as target behaviours. Staff would give her a token immediately after she performed each behaviour. The token is a secondary reinforcer because it has acquired value through association with backup rewards. Vera could accumulate the tokens and exchange them for additional telephone time or a preferred activity. Receiving the reward should positively reinforce calm behaviour, making it more likely to occur again.
This answer includes:
The precise behaviour.
The token.
Positive reinforcement.
Secondary reinforcement.
The exchange reward.
The effect on future behaviour.
Shaping Behaviour
Some prisoners may initially be unable to perform a complex target behaviour fully.
Shaping involves reinforcing successive approximations towards the desired behaviour.
For example, the final goal might be:
Complete a full group education session without disruptive behaviour.
Early targets could include:
Entering the room appropriately.
Remaining for ten minutes.
Completing one activity.
Remaining for half the session.
Completing the full session.
Each step moves closer to the final behaviour.
Shaping can make the programme more achievable, although the reinforcement criteria must remain clear.
Token Economy and the Prison Environment
Behaviour modification may improve daily prison life by:
Reducing conflict.
Increasing predictability.
Encouraging participation.
Improving staff-prisoner interactions.
Increasing compliance with routines.
Providing prisoners with clear goals.
Giving prisoners some control over access to rewards.
This can benefit:
Prisoners.
Staff.
Visitors.
Rehabilitation providers.
The institution as a whole.
Increasing Perceived Control
Custody involves a substantial loss of autonomy.
A token economy may return a limited sense of control because the prisoner can choose to:
Perform a target behaviour.
Save tokens.
Select a preferred reward.
Work towards a clear outcome.
However, this control remains highly restricted because the institution defines:
Which behaviours count.
Which rewards are available.
The exchange rate.
Whether tokens can be removed.
Behaviour Modification and Rehabilitation
Behaviour modification may contribute to rehabilitation if prisoners develop:
Cooperative routines.
Work habits.
Participation in education.
Non-aggressive responses.
Improved self-management.
However, institutional compliance is not automatically the same as rehabilitation.
A prisoner may behave appropriately because:
“I want the tokens.”
They may not have changed:
Their moral reasoning.
Their criminal attitudes.
Their cognitive distortions.
Their ability to cope outside prison.
Their understanding of victim harm.
The causes of their offending.
This distinction is central to evaluation.
Short-Term Behaviour and Long-Term Change
Short-Term Goal
Examples include:
Reduced shouting.
Fewer rule violations.
Better attendance.
Greater cooperation.
Reduced aggression.
Long-Term Goal
The longer-term goal might be:
Continued lawful behaviour after release.
Reduced aggression in the community.
Improved employment behaviour.
Lower recidivism.
A programme may achieve the short-term goal without achieving the long-term goal.
Generalisation
Generalisation occurs when a learned behaviour transfers to a different situation.
For example:
A prisoner learns to respond calmly to disagreement inside prison and continues to do so after release.
Generalisation may be limited because the community does not contain:
The same rules.
The same staff.
The same tokens.
The same reward menu.
The same level of supervision.
The person may return to their previous behaviour when institutional reinforcement ends.
Maintenance
Maintenance means that behavioural change continues over time.
A prisoner might behave appropriately while tokens are available but stop when the rewards are removed.
This raises the question:
Has the behaviour been genuinely learned, or is it being performed only to obtain external rewards?
Behaviour Modification Compared with Anger Management
Behaviour modification | Anger management |
Based mainly on operant conditioning | Combines cognitive and behavioural methods |
Rewards observable conduct | Develops understanding and self-control |
Prisoner may participate relatively passively | Requires active reflection and practice |
Can improve immediate institutional behaviour | Aims for skills that transfer beyond prison |
Does not necessarily address thoughts or causes | Examines triggers, appraisals and coping |
Depends on external reinforcement | Aims to develop internal self-regulation |
AQA’s 2024 mark scheme specifically identifies passivity in behaviour modification versus active engagement in anger management as a useful comparison.
Behaviour Modification Compared with Custodial Sentencing
Custodial sentencing and its psychological effects [Lesson 10: Custodial sentencing] concern imprisonment as a whole.
Behaviour modification is one intervention that may operate inside custody.
It may support the rehabilitative aim by:
Encouraging programme attendance.
Reducing disruptive behaviour.
Improving engagement.
Establishing constructive routines.
However, it cannot remove all harmful effects of imprisonment, such as:
Institutionalisation.
Brutalisation.
Social isolation.
Labelling.
Mental-health deterioration.
Behaviour Modification Compared with Restorative Justice
Restorative justice programmes [Lesson 13: Restorative justice] focus on:
Victim harm.
Responsibility.
Communication.
Repairing damage.
Behaviour modification focuses on observable conduct and reinforcement.
A prisoner may earn tokens for appropriate behaviour without:
Meeting a victim.
Understanding the consequences of the offence.
Expressing remorse.
Repairing harm.
The approaches therefore have very different psychological aims.
Evaluating Behaviour Modification Programmes
Strength: Based on Established Learning Principles
Behaviour modification is based on operant conditioning, a well-established learning principle.
The programme makes a clear prediction:
If desirable behaviour is followed consistently by reinforcement, that behaviour should increase.
This prediction can be tested by comparing:
Behaviour before the programme.
Behaviour during the programme.
Behaviour after rewards are reduced or removed.
The approach therefore has a clear scientific basis.
Strength: Behaviour Can Be Measured Objectively
Target behaviours can be operationalised and counted.
Researchers or prison staff can record:
Attendance.
Completed work.
Aggressive incidents.
Rule violations.
Tokens earned.
Rewards exchanged.
This produces quantitative data.
For example:
Aggressive incidents fell from twelve per week to five per week.
Such measurements are more objective than asking whether staff feel that a prisoner’s attitude has improved.
Reliability
Reliability can be increased by:
Clear behavioural definitions.
Staff training.
Standardised recording.
Inter-observer checks.
Written programme rules.
If different staff agree when a target behaviour has occurred, confidence in the records increases.
Strength: Immediate Feedback
Tokens can be delivered immediately after the target behaviour.
Immediate feedback helps the prisoner understand:
Which conduct was successful.
Why the token was received.
How future rewards can be earned.
This clear contingency may make learning more efficient than delayed or unpredictable consequences.
Strength: Individual Programmes
Token economies can be adapted to an individual prisoner.
One person might work towards:
Attending education.
Another might work towards:
Reducing verbal aggression.
Another might work towards:
Completing daily living tasks.
Rewards can also reflect individual preferences.
This increases the possibility that reinforcement will be meaningful.
Strength: Practical Institutional Benefits
A token economy may improve the functioning of the institution.
Possible benefits include:
Fewer aggressive incidents.
Greater participation.
More predictable routines.
Safer conditions.
Improved staff-prisoner relationships.
More time available for education and therapy.
Even where long-term recidivism is unchanged, improved safety inside prison is a meaningful outcome.
Evidence Identified by AQA
The June 2024 mark scheme identifies Hobbs and Holt (1976) as relevant evidence when discussing token economies.
The supplied AQA material names the research but does not provide its detailed procedure or findings. For revision grounded strictly in these files, the safe use is:
Hobbs and Holt can be cited as research relevant to the effectiveness of token-economy programmes, followed by evaluation of whether improvements inside an institution demonstrate lasting rehabilitation.
Avoid inventing unsupported sample sizes, numerical findings or procedural details in an examination.
Limitation: Short-Term Compliance
A major limitation is that token economies may produce compliance rather than genuine behavioural change.
The prisoner may think:
“I will behave appropriately because I want the reward.”
They may not develop:
Insight.
Remorse.
Internal motivation.
Empathy.
New moral reasoning.
Strategies for coping after release.
The behaviour may stop when the token system stops.
Institutional Behaviour Is Not Offending Behaviour
A prisoner earning tokens for:
Making a bed.
Attending a workshop.
Waiting in a queue.
does not necessarily become less likely to:
Steal.
Commit fraud.
Use violence.
Rejoin a criminal group.
The programme may improve prison management without changing the causes of the original offence.
Limitation: Generalisation Beyond Prison
Prison is a highly controlled environment.
Outside prison:
Tokens are unavailable.
Staff do not monitor every action.
Rewards are delayed.
Peer pressure may return.
Criminal opportunities may be present.
Emotional situations may be less predictable.
Behaviour learned under institutional conditions may not transfer to community life.
This reduces the external validity of apparent treatment success.
Limitation: Behaviour May Not Be Maintained
When external reinforcement ends, behaviour may return to its previous level.
This is especially likely if:
Rewards were the only motivation.
The programme did not develop intrinsic motivation.
The person did not understand why the behaviour mattered.
Community reinforcement favours offending.
Criminal peers provide stronger rewards.
A follow-up after release is therefore more informative than measuring behaviour only during custody.
Limitation: Does Not Address Underlying Causes
Behaviour modification focuses on the observable behaviour rather than its origin.
It may not address:
Hostile attribution bias.
Minimalisation.
Immature moral reasoning.
Pro-criminal attitudes.
Addiction.
Trauma.
Anger.
Biological vulnerability.
Poverty or unemployment.
Criminal peer groups.
For example:
Rewarding a prisoner for not shouting may reduce shouting without changing the hostile interpretation that causes their anger.
A cognitive or therapeutic intervention may be required for deeper change.
Limitation: Passivity
The prisoner may participate passively.
They do not necessarily need to:
Reflect on the offence.
Understand their triggers.
Accept responsibility.
Practise complex coping skills.
Examine victim harm.
Develop personal goals.
They need only perform the behaviour required to obtain the reward.
The June 2024 mark scheme explicitly accepts passivity as an evaluative issue and contrasts it with the active engagement required by anger management.
Limitation: Ethics of Control
Behaviour modification raises ethical concerns because it is designed to control behaviour.
The institution decides:
Which conduct is desirable.
Which privileges are available.
How many tokens are awarded.
Whether tokens may be removed.
What counts as successful behaviour.
AQA’s June 2024 mark scheme describes behaviour modification as potentially manipulative and dehumanising.
Manipulation
The prisoner’s conduct is deliberately altered through control of rewards.
This may be viewed as manipulation because:
The institution possesses most available resources.
Prisoners have limited alternatives.
Refusal may result in fewer privileges.
The power relationship is unequal.
Dehumanisation
A programme may be seen as dehumanising if it treats the prisoner as:
A collection of behaviours.
Someone to be controlled.
A passive recipient of rewards.
An object of institutional management.
This may ignore:
Personal history.
Thoughts.
Emotions.
Individual dignity.
Reasons for the behaviour.
Are Rewards Rights or Privileges?
Ethical concerns become stronger when basic rights are treated as rewards.
A programme should not make essential needs dependent on compliance.
Prisoners should not have to earn:
Basic nutrition.
Necessary healthcare.
Safety.
Hygiene.
Legally required contact.
Protection from harm.
A more ethical system uses genuine additional privileges rather than withholding basic entitlements.
Coercion
Participation may not be fully voluntary when:
The institution controls daily life.
Rewards are highly scarce.
Refusing the programme causes substantial disadvantage.
Staff influence reports, privileges or progression.
The prisoner may agree because there is no realistic alternative.
Limitation: Staff Consistency
Token economies require consistent implementation.
Problems may occur if staff:
Interpret behaviours differently.
Forget to award tokens.
Apply personal bias.
Change rules without warning.
Fail to provide promised rewards.
Record behaviour inaccurately.
Use tokens as punishment.
Inconsistent reinforcement can:
Confuse prisoners.
Reduce trust.
Weaken learning.
Create conflict.
Make programme evaluation unreliable.
Limitation: Staff Bias
Staff may award tokens differently according to:
Personal relationships.
Stereotypes.
Expectations.
Mood.
Previous incidents.
Cultural misunderstandings.
For example, one prisoner’s assertive communication may be interpreted as appropriate, while another’s is labelled aggressive.
Clear operational definitions help, but they cannot remove every judgement.
Limitation: Individual Differences
A standard token economy may not suit every prisoner.
Effectiveness may depend on:
Cognitive ability.
Mental health.
Age.
Language.
Motivation.
Understanding of delayed rewards.
Personal preferences.
Type of offending.
Length of sentence.
Someone experiencing severe depression may struggle to perform target behaviours consistently.
Someone who does not value the available rewards may have little reason to participate.
Limitation: Fairness
Prisoners may differ in their ability to earn tokens.
For example:
A prisoner with mobility difficulties may be unable to complete certain activities.
A prisoner with anxiety may find group participation difficult.
A person with language difficulties may misunderstand instructions.
A prisoner placed in isolation may have fewer opportunities to earn tokens.
Giving everyone identical targets may appear equal but not be equitable.
Programmes may need reasonable adjustments.
Limitation: Extrinsic Motivation
Token economies rely on extrinsic motivation.
Extrinsic motivation involves performing behaviour to obtain an external reward.
A prisoner may follow rules because:
Tokens are available.
A reward is desired.
Loss of privileges is feared.
They may not become intrinsically motivated to behave appropriately because it is:
Responsible.
Prosocial.
Fair.
Beneficial to other people.
Once the external reward disappears, motivation may weaken.
Limitation: Determining Effectiveness
It can be difficult to determine whether the token economy caused behavioural improvement.
Other changes may occur at the same time:
New prison staff.
Reduced overcrowding.
Transfer of aggressive prisoners.
Increased therapy.
Changes in medication.
Improved family contact.
Movement to a different unit.
A reduction in incidents cannot automatically be attributed to the token system.
AQA’s June 2024 mark scheme identifies problems determining the effectiveness of interventions as relevant discussion.
Research Design Problems
A strong evaluation study would ideally compare:
A group receiving the token economy.
A similar control group not receiving it.
Baseline behaviour.
Behaviour during the programme.
Behaviour after the programme.
Long-term recidivism.
However, research in real prisons faces difficulties.
Random Allocation
Randomly assigning prisoners to receive or not receive a potentially beneficial intervention may be:
Unfair.
Impractical.
Disruptive.
Ethically questionable.
Control
Prison environments contain many variables that cannot be fully controlled.
Demand Characteristics
Prisoners may change behaviour because:
They know they are being observed.
They want favourable reports.
They expect later privileges.
They wish to impress staff.
Researcher and Staff Effects
Staff expectations may influence:
How behaviour is interpreted.
Which incidents are recorded.
How enthusiastically the programme is implemented.
Recidivism as an Outcome
Lower recidivism would provide stronger evidence of genuine rehabilitation than improved prison conduct alone.
However, recidivism is affected by:
Housing.
Employment.
Family support.
Addiction.
Community treatment.
Peer groups.
Police monitoring.
Type of offence.
A person may reoffend despite improved institutional behaviour because their community circumstances remain unchanged.
Alternatively, someone may avoid reconviction without maintaining the target behaviours.
Environmental Determinism
Behaviour modification may be criticised as environmentally deterministic.
It assumes that behaviour is governed by external consequences.
The prisoner appears to behave appropriately because the environment provides:
Tokens.
Rewards.
Privileges.
Sanctions.
This can underestimate:
Free choice.
Personal values.
Cognition.
Internal motivation.
Individual resistance.
However, determinism gives the programme practical value because changing environmental consequences provides a clear method for changing behaviour.
This connects with environmental influences and personal control [Lesson 3: Free will and determinism].
Environmental Reductionism
Behaviour modification is also environmentally reductionist.
It reduces complex offending-related conduct to:
Target behaviour.
Reinforcement.
Tokens.
Rewards.
This produces:
Clear variables.
Objective measurement.
Testable predictions.
Practical intervention.
However, it may overlook:
Thoughts.
Emotions.
Relationships.
Biology.
Social deprivation.
The meaning of the offence.
This connects with the strengths and limitations of environmental reductionism [Lesson 5: Holism and reductionism].
Social Sensitivity
Behaviour modification has socially sensitive implications because prisoners form a group with limited power.
Concerns include:
Who defines desirable behaviour.
Whether cultural differences are respected.
Whether refusal affects treatment.
Whether records influence parole decisions.
Whether privileges are distributed fairly.
Whether programmes become instruments of control.
This connects with the consequences of psychological interventions for individuals and groups [Lesson 7: Social sensitivity].
Behaviour Modification and Recidivism
A behaviour-modification programme should not be judged only by how quiet or orderly the prison becomes.
A broader evaluation asks:
Does aggression remain lower after release?
Does employment behaviour improve?
Are coping skills maintained?
Does the prisoner avoid pro-criminal groups?
Is recidivism reduced?
Does the person behave prosocially without tokens?
An orderly institution may benefit staff and prisoners, but this is not automatically evidence of successful long-term rehabilitation.
A Balanced Comparison with Anger Management
Advantages of Behaviour Modification
Simple principles.
Observable targets.
Immediate feedback.
Objective measurement.
Useful for institutional conduct.
Does not require detailed verbal insight.
Can reinforce participation in other programmes.
Advantages of Anger Management
Addresses thinking and emotional triggers.
Requires active participation.
Develops transferable skills.
May produce internal self-regulation.
More directly relevant to aggressive offending.
Combined Use
The programmes could be combined.
For example:
Tokens reinforce attendance at anger-management sessions.
Tokens reward the use of coping strategies.
Anger management addresses the psychological cause.
Behaviour modification supports practice and participation.
The combination may be stronger than either intervention alone.
Overall Evaluation
Behaviour modification applies operant-conditioning principles to observable conduct within custody. In a token economy, clearly defined desirable behaviours are followed by tokens. These secondary reinforcers are accumulated and exchanged for valued rewards or privileges, positively reinforcing the target behaviour.
The approach is systematic, measurable and capable of producing immediate improvements in institutional conduct. It can reduce disruption, encourage programme attendance and make custody safer.
However, token economies may produce passive, short-term compliance rather than genuine rehabilitation. Behaviour may not generalise beyond prison or continue once rewards are removed. The programme may also fail to address the cognitive, emotional or social causes of offending.
Ethical concerns arise because the institution controls scarce rewards and defines acceptable behaviour. Staff inconsistency, individual differences and difficulties measuring long-term effectiveness further limit the approach.
The most balanced conclusion is that behaviour modification is useful for managing and improving conduct within custody. It is less convincing as a complete treatment for offending unless combined with interventions that develop insight, responsibility and transferable skills.
Key Words 🔑
Key word | Student-friendly definition | How it may be used in an exam |
Behaviour modification | Systematic use of learning principles to change observable behaviour | Introduce the intervention |
Operant conditioning | Learning through the consequences of behaviour | Explain the theoretical basis |
Reinforcement | A consequence that increases the likelihood of behaviour | Explain why target behaviour is repeated |
Positive reinforcement | Adding a rewarding consequence to increase behaviour | Explain how tokens are used |
Negative reinforcement | Removing something unpleasant to increase behaviour | Distinguish reinforcement from punishment |
Punishment | A consequence that reduces behaviour | Compare with reinforcement |
Response cost | Removing something valued to reduce undesirable behaviour | Explain the possible loss of tokens |
Token economy | A programme in which tokens are earned for target behaviours and exchanged for rewards | Name the main custody programme |
Token | A point, counter or credit awarded after desirable behaviour | Identify the immediate reinforcer |
Secondary reinforcer | A stimulus that gains value through association with another reward | Explain why tokens become valuable |
Backup reinforcer | A valued reward or privilege obtained in exchange for tokens | Distinguish the reward from the token |
Primary reinforcer | A naturally rewarding stimulus satisfying a biological need | Explain rewards such as preferred food |
Target behaviour | The specific behaviour a programme aims to increase | Apply the programme to a scenario |
Operationalisation | Defining behaviour in observable and measurable terms | Explain reliable programme design |
Contingency | The planned relationship between behaviour and its consequence | Explain why tokens must depend on behaviour |
Baseline | Measurement of behaviour before an intervention begins | Evaluate behavioural improvement |
Shaping | Reinforcing gradual steps towards a final desired behaviour | Explain how complex conduct may be developed |
Generalisation | Transfer of learned behaviour to a different setting | Evaluate behaviour after release |
Maintenance | Continuation of behaviour over time | Evaluate long-term change |
Extrinsic motivation | Behaviour motivated by an external reward | Evaluate reliance on tokens |
Intrinsic motivation | Behaviour motivated by internal values or satisfaction | Explain what a token economy may fail to develop |
Institutional compliance | Following the rules and routines of custody | Distinguish prison behaviour from rehabilitation |
Rehabilitation | Changing the offender to reduce future offending | Evaluate the programme’s long-term purpose |
Recidivism | Reoffending after a sentence or intervention | Assess long-term effectiveness |
Environmental determinism | The view that behaviour is controlled by environmental consequences | Evaluate operant conditioning |
Environmental reductionism | Explaining behaviour mainly through reinforcement and punishment | Evaluate the programme’s narrow focus |
Ethics of control | Concerns about using psychological techniques to manipulate behaviour | Discuss fairness and prisoner autonomy |
Hints from the Examiner Reports 💡
Explain the Full Token-Economy Sequence
Examiner hint: Do not merely name “token economy”.
A complete explanation should include:
A clearly defined desired behaviour.
A token awarded after that behaviour.
The token identified as a secondary reinforcer.
Tokens accumulated over time.
Tokens exchanged for valued rewards.
Positive reinforcement making the behaviour more likely.
The June 2024 mark scheme expects this operant-conditioning process.
Apply the Target Behaviour Precisely
Do not write:
Vera receives tokens for behaving well.
Write:
Vera receives a token immediately after she waits in the meal queue without shouting.
The second answer:
Uses the scenario.
Operationalises the behaviour.
Shows when the token is delivered.
Explains the contingency.
Distinguish the Token from the Reward
A token is usually a secondary reinforcer.
The telephone time, preferred activity or food obtained later is the backup reward.
Do not write:
The extra phone call is the token.
Use Positive Reinforcement Accurately
Positive reinforcement means:
Adding a rewarding consequence to increase behaviour.
It does not mean:
Saying something positive.
Removing a punishment.
Punishing bad behaviour.
Taking away tokens.
Do Not Confuse Negative Reinforcement with Punishment
Negative reinforcement increases behaviour through removal of something unpleasant.
Removing a token to reduce behaviour is negative punishment or response cost.
For most behaviour-modification answers, positive reinforcement is sufficient.
Link the Reward to Future Behaviour
Do not stop at:
The prisoner earns a token.
Complete the explanation:
Because the token can be exchanged for a valued privilege, it positively reinforces the behaviour and makes repetition more likely.
Explain Why the Programme May Be Effective
Avoid vague statements such as:
It works because prisoners like rewards.
Develop the point:
Target behaviours are operationalised and recorded, so staff can deliver immediate and consistent reinforcement. This clear contingency makes it easier for the prisoner to learn which conduct produces a desirable consequence.
Distinguish Management from Rehabilitation
A reduction in disruptive behaviour inside prison demonstrates improved institutional management.
It does not automatically demonstrate:
Changed criminal attitudes.
Reduced recidivism.
Successful behaviour after release.
This distinction is one of the strongest evaluation points.
Develop the Passivity Argument
AQA’s mark scheme identifies passivity as a limitation.
A developed point is:
Prisoners can earn rewards without examining their motives or accepting responsibility. The programme may therefore produce compliant behaviour without the active psychological change required for long-term rehabilitation.
Develop Ethical Evaluation
Do not write only:
It is unethical.
Explain:
Prison authorities control scarce privileges and may use them to manipulate compliance. This creates an unequal power relationship and may be dehumanising if prisoners are treated merely as behaviours to be controlled.
Avoid Invented Evidence
The June 2024 examiner report warned that weaker discussions sometimes used efficacy studies that appeared to have been invented.
The supplied mark scheme identifies Hobbs and Holt as relevant evidence but does not provide detailed figures.
Do not invent:
Sample sizes.
Percentages.
Precise reductions.
Follow-up results.
Use the evidence only at the level you can support.
Use Research Evidence to Make an Argument
A useful evidence paragraph is:
AQA identifies Hobbs and Holt as relevant token-economy evidence. This supports the possibility that reinforcement can improve behaviour within an institution. However, improved conduct during the programme does not by itself show that behaviour generalises after release or that recidivism is reduced.
Make Comparisons Relevant
When comparing with anger management, explain the psychological difference:
Behaviour modification uses external reinforcement and can be relatively passive. Anger management requires the offender to identify triggers, learn coping skills and practise alternative responses, so it may be more likely to produce transferable self-control.
Apply Every Element of the Stem
The June 2024 examiner report noted that behaviour modification was the most commonly selected way of dealing with offending in the applied essay.
High-level application should use multiple details, such as:
The prisoner’s exact problem behaviour.
A suitable replacement behaviour.
The number or timing of tokens.
A reward the prisoner would value.
The expected effect on future conduct.
Common Mistakes ⚠️
Mistake 1
Mistake: Describing behaviour modification as talking to prisoners about their crimes.
Why this is incorrect:
Behaviour modification is based on operant conditioning and observable consequences.
How to improve:
Explain target behaviour, tokens and reinforcement.
Mistake 2
Mistake: Saying a token economy rewards bad behaviour.
Why this is incorrect:
Tokens should follow clearly defined desirable behaviour.
How to improve:
State the replacement behaviour being reinforced.
Mistake 3
Mistake: Calling the final reward a token.
Why this is incorrect:
The token is earned immediately and exchanged later for the reward.
How to improve:
Distinguish the secondary reinforcer from the backup reinforcer.
Mistake 4
Mistake: Saying tokens are naturally rewarding.
Why this is inaccurate:
Tokens acquire value through association with rewards.
How to improve:
Describe them as secondary or conditioned reinforcers.
Mistake 5
Mistake: Saying positive reinforcement means praising someone.
Why this is too narrow:
Praise can be reinforcing, but positive reinforcement means adding any rewarding consequence that increases behaviour.
How to improve:
Define the process through its effect.
Mistake 6
Mistake: Saying negative reinforcement is punishment.
Why this is incorrect:
Negative reinforcement increases behaviour by removing something unpleasant.
How to improve:
Remember:
Reinforcement increases. Punishment decreases.
Mistake 7
Mistake: Using vague target behaviours such as “be good”.
Why this is unreliable:
Different staff may interpret “good” differently.
How to improve:
Operationalise the action precisely.
Mistake 8
Mistake: Awarding the token before the behaviour.
Why this weakens learning:
The token should be a consequence of the desired behaviour.
How to improve:
Use the sequence behaviour first, token second.
Mistake 9
Mistake: Delaying the token without explanation.
Why this can reduce effectiveness:
The prisoner may not connect the reward with the behaviour.
How to improve:
State that reinforcement should be prompt.
Mistake 10
Mistake: Assuming that every prisoner values the same reward.
Why this is inaccurate:
Reinforcement depends on the consequence being rewarding for that individual.
How to improve:
Refer to individualised or varied reward menus.
Mistake 11
Mistake: Saying improved prison behaviour proves rehabilitation.
Why this is incorrect:
Institutional compliance may stop when tokens and supervision end.
How to improve:
Evaluate generalisation, maintenance and recidivism.
Mistake 12
Mistake: Claiming that token economies address the cause of offending.
Why this is often inaccurate:
The programme focuses on observable conduct rather than thoughts, emotions or social circumstances.
How to improve:
Describe it as a behavioural-management method and compare it with deeper interventions.
Mistake 13
Mistake: Assuming that removing every privilege is ethical.
Why this is incorrect:
Basic rights and essential needs should not depend on programme compliance.
How to improve:
Distinguish additional privileges from basic entitlements.
Mistake 14
Mistake: Saying behaviour modification is always cheap and easy.
Why this is too absolute:
It requires programme design, staff training, consistent recording and reliable access to rewards.
How to improve:
Balance administrative simplicity against implementation demands.
Mistake 15
Mistake: Naming Hobbs and Holt with invented findings.
Why this is risky:
The AQA material identifies the study as relevant but does not provide detailed figures.
How to improve:
Use the study cautiously and focus on the argument it illustrates.
Exam-Style Questions ✍️
Question 1
What is meant by behaviour modification? [2 marks]
Question 2
Explain what is meant by positive reinforcement. [2 marks]
Question 3
Question 4
Outline how a token economy may be used in custody. [4 marks]
Question 5
Arlo frequently shouts at staff during mealtimes and refuses to attend education sessions. He values additional telephone time and access to the prison gym.
Design a behaviour-modification programme that could be used to improve Arlo’s behaviour. [6 marks]
Question 6
Explain one difference between behaviour modification and anger management as ways of dealing with offending. [4 marks]
Question 7
A prison records behaviour during the four weeks before and the four weeks after introducing a token economy.
Behaviour recorded | Before the programme | During the programme |
Aggressive incidents | 40 | 22 |
Completed education sessions | 64 | 92 |
Refusals to follow instructions | 30 | 18 |
Calculate the percentage reduction in aggressive incidents. Describe one other pattern and explain one conclusion that can reasonably be drawn. [6 marks]
Question 8
Explain one ethical issue associated with behaviour modification in custody. [3 marks]
Question 9
Explain one strength and one limitation of behaviour modification programmes. [6 marks]
Question 10
Discuss behaviour modification in custody as a way of dealing with offending behaviour. [16 marks]
Answers and Mark Scheme
Question 1
Award one mark for each of the following:
The systematic use of learning or operant-conditioning principles.
The aim is to increase desirable observable behaviour or reduce undesirable behaviour.
Maximum: 2 marks
Question 2
Award marks as follows:
One mark for stating that something rewarding is added after a behaviour.
One mark for explaining that the behaviour consequently becomes more likely to occur again.
Maximum: 2 marks
Question 3
Award one mark for each relevant point:
A token has little or no natural value by itself.
It gains value through association with backup rewards or privileges.
The prisoner can accumulate and exchange tokens for those valued rewards.
Maximum: 3 marks
Question 4
Award one mark for each relevant point, up to four marks:
Desired behaviours are clearly identified or operationalised.
A token is awarded after the behaviour.
The token acts as a secondary reinforcer.
Tokens are accumulated.
Tokens are exchanged for rewards or privileges.
The rewards positively reinforce the target behaviour.
Reinforcement should be prompt.
Staff should apply the programme consistently.
The behaviour should become more likely to be repeated.
Question 5
Award up to six marks for effective application.
Possible content includes:
Operationalise calm mealtime behaviour, such as completing the meal period without shouting.
Operationalise education attendance, such as attending and completing a full scheduled session.
Give Arlo a token immediately after calm mealtime behaviour.
Give Arlo one or more tokens after completing an education session.
Explain that tokens are secondary reinforcers.
Allow tokens to be accumulated.
Exchange tokens for additional telephone time.
Exchange tokens for approved gym access.
Explain that these rewards should positively reinforce the target behaviours.
Record behaviour consistently.
Ensure all staff use the same rules.
A full-mark response should link Arlo’s specific behaviours with tokens, valued rewards and increased future conduct.
Question 6
Possible answer:
Behaviour modification uses operant conditioning to reward observable conduct, usually through a token economy. The prisoner can participate relatively passively by performing the required behaviour to obtain rewards. Anger management requires active cognitive and behavioural engagement because the offender identifies triggers, learns coping strategies and practises them. Behaviour modification therefore controls behaviour through external consequences, whereas anger management aims to develop internal self-regulation.
For four marks, both interventions should be accurate and the difference explicit.
Question 7
Award one mark for the correct calculation:
4040−22×100=45%
Aggressive incidents decreased by 45%.
Award up to two marks for describing another pattern:
Completed education sessions increased from 64 to 92.
This is an increase of 28 sessions.
Refusals to follow instructions decreased from 30 to 18.
This is a reduction of 12 refusals.
All three measures changed in the desired direction.
Award up to three marks for explanation:
The results are consistent with the token economy improving institutional behaviour.
Reinforcement may have increased education attendance.
Reinforcement may have reduced aggressive or non-compliant conduct.
The results do not establish cause and effect.
Staff practices or other prison conditions may have changed.
Prisoners may have altered behaviour because they knew they were being monitored.
The results do not show that behaviour would continue after tokens were removed.
The results do not demonstrate reduced recidivism.
Question 8
Award one mark for identifying an ethical issue and up to two marks for explanation.
Possible answer:
Behaviour modification may be manipulative because prison authorities control the rewards available to prisoners and use them to produce compliance. The power relationship is unequal, and prisoners may feel they have no meaningful choice about participating. The programme may therefore be dehumanising if it treats the person merely as behaviour to be controlled.
Other creditworthy issues include:
Withholding basic rights.
Unfair reward allocation.
Discrimination through staff judgement.
Lack of informed consent.
Unequal opportunity to earn tokens.
Question 9
Award up to three marks for one developed strength and up to three marks for one developed limitation.
Possible strength:
Target behaviours can be operationalised and counted, allowing staff to compare behaviour before and during the programme. Tokens can also be delivered immediately, creating a clear contingency between desirable behaviour and reward. This makes the intervention systematic and its short-term effects relatively easy to measure.
Possible limitation:
Behaviour may not generalise outside custody because tokens and close supervision are no longer available. A prisoner may comply only to obtain rewards and return to previous behaviour after release. Improved prison conduct therefore does not necessarily demonstrate successful rehabilitation or reduced recidivism.
Other creditworthy limitations include:
Passivity.
Failure to address underlying causes.
Ethical manipulation.
Staff inconsistency.
Individual differences.
Extrinsic motivation.
Difficulty establishing cause and effect.
Environmental determinism or reductionism.
Question 10
A high-level answer should include accurate knowledge and developed evaluation.
Indicative AO1 content
Definition of behaviour modification.
Operant conditioning.
Reinforcement.
Positive reinforcement.
Token economies.
Target behaviours.
Operationalisation.
Tokens as secondary reinforcers.
Accumulation of tokens.
Exchange for backup rewards.
Examples of prison target behaviours.
Examples of rewards and privileges.
Prompt reinforcement.
Consistency of staff.
Monitoring and baseline measurements.
Possible response cost.
Shaping of complex behaviours.
Behaviour becoming more likely through reinforcement.
Indicative AO3 content
Established learning principles.
Clear and testable predictions.
Objective measurement of observable behaviour.
Immediate feedback.
Practical improvements to institutional conduct.
Supportive research identified by AQA, such as Hobbs and Holt.
Short-term compliance rather than genuine rehabilitation.
Generalisation beyond prison.
Maintenance after rewards are removed.
Limited evidence regarding recidivism.
Failure to address underlying causes of offending.
Passivity compared with anger management.
Extrinsic rather than intrinsic motivation.
Ethical concerns involving manipulation and dehumanisation.
Power imbalance within prison.
Basic rights compared with additional privileges.
Staff consistency and bias.
Individual differences and fairness.
Difficulty establishing treatment effectiveness.
Environmental determinism.
Environmental reductionism.
Comparison with anger management or restorative justice.
Possibility of combining behavioural reinforcement with other interventions.
Thirteen to sixteen marks: Knowledge is accurate and generally detailed. Discussion is thorough, focused and effective. The response explains the full reinforcement process and makes clear judgements about institutional behaviour, rehabilitation, ethics and long-term change. Specialist terminology is used precisely.
Nine to twelve marks: Knowledge is mostly accurate and discussion is generally effective. Token economies and positive reinforcement are explained, although some evaluative arguments may lack detail or balance.
Five to eight marks: Some relevant knowledge is present, but the response is mainly descriptive. Tokens and rewards may be mentioned without a clear explanation of secondary reinforcement, or evaluation may be generic.
One to four marks: Knowledge is very limited or confused. The response may confuse reinforcement with punishment, fail to distinguish tokens from rewards or provide little relevant evaluation.
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