Operant conditioning | AQA A-Level Psychology Revision
Updated: Sep 9
For 7182 specification, first teach in September 2025
AQA A-Level Psychology | Free Revision Notes
Estimated study time: 45 minutes
These Operant conditioning A-Level Psychology revision notes explain how behaviour can be learned from its consequences. You will examine positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement and punishment before exploring how Skinner investigated learning using animals in controlled environments. Operant conditioning is an important part of the behaviourist approach and helps explain behaviours ranging from everyday habits to the maintenance of phobias. It follows naturally from learning through association and prepares you to evaluate the behaviourist approach.
Learning Objectives 🎯
By the end of this revision page, you should be able to:
Define operant conditioning.
Explain how consequences influence future behaviour.
Distinguish between positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement.
Distinguish reinforcement from punishment.
Describe Skinner’s research into operant conditioning.
Apply operant conditioning to unfamiliar situations.
Revision Notes 📚
Operant conditioning A-Level Psychology revision overview
Operant conditioning is a form of learning in which behaviour is shaped by its consequences.
A behaviour that produces a desirable consequence is more likely to be repeated. A behaviour that produces an undesirable consequence may become less likely to occur again.
The basic sequence is:
Behaviour → consequence → change in the future likelihood of the behaviour
Unlike classical conditioning, which involves learning an association between two stimuli, operant conditioning focuses on what happens after a behaviour.
The AQA specification requires students to understand operant conditioning, types of reinforcement and Skinner’s research as part of the behaviourist approach.
Behaviour and its consequences
Operant conditioning usually concerns behaviour that operates on the environment.
For example, a person may:
Complete a task.
Press a button.
Ask for assistance.
Avoid a frightening situation.
Follow a particular rule.
A consequence then follows the behaviour. This consequence affects whether the person or animal is likely to behave in the same way again.
There are two central outcomes:
Reinforcement increases the likelihood that a behaviour will be repeated.
Punishment decreases the likelihood that a behaviour will be repeated.
The effect on future behaviour is what matters. A consequence is only a reinforcer if it actually increases the behaviour.
What is reinforcement?
Reinforcement is a consequence that makes a behaviour more likely to occur again.
There are two types required for this lesson:
Positive reinforcement
Negative reinforcement
Both forms of reinforcement increase behaviour. The difference is whether something is added or removed.
Positive reinforcement
Positive reinforcement occurs when a behaviour is followed by the addition of a desirable consequence, making the behaviour more likely to be repeated.
The sequence is:
Behaviour → desirable consequence is added → behaviour increases
For example, a student completes their homework and receives praise. If the praise makes the student more likely to complete future homework, the praise has acted as positive reinforcement.
Other examples include:
A rat presses a lever and receives food.
A child tidies their room and receives additional screen time.
An employee completes a task and receives recognition.
A dog follows a command and receives a treat.
The word positive refers to the addition of a consequence. It does not mean that the behaviour itself is morally good.
Negative reinforcement
Negative reinforcement occurs when a behaviour removes or prevents an unpleasant consequence, making the behaviour more likely to be repeated.
The sequence is:
Behaviour → unpleasant consequence is removed → behaviour increases
For example, a car produces an unpleasant warning sound until the driver fastens their seat belt. Fastening the seat belt removes the sound, making the driver more likely to fasten it quickly in the future.
Other examples include:
Taking an action that stops an unpleasant noise.
Completing a task to avoid repeated reminders.
Leaving a frightening situation to reduce anxiety.
Pressing a lever that stops an unpleasant stimulus.
Negative reinforcement still increases behaviour. It is not the same as punishment.
Comparing positive and negative reinforcement
Feature | Positive reinforcement | Negative reinforcement |
What happens? | A desirable consequence is added | An unpleasant consequence is removed or avoided |
Effect on behaviour | Behaviour becomes more likely | Behaviour becomes more likely |
Example | Completing work leads to praise | Completing work stops repeated reminders |
Key question | What was added? | What was removed or prevented? |
The most important similarity is that both increase the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated.
The key difference is whether the consequence involves adding something desirable or removing something unpleasant.
What is punishment?
Punishment is a consequence that makes a behaviour less likely to be repeated.
The sequence is:
Behaviour → unpleasant or unwanted consequence → behaviour decreases
For example, if a pupil repeatedly calls out and receives a consequence that reduces future calling out, the consequence has acted as punishment.
Punishment is different from negative reinforcement:
Negative reinforcement | Punishment |
Increases behaviour | Decreases behaviour |
Removes or prevents something unpleasant | Introduces an unwanted consequence or otherwise discourages behaviour |
The individual behaves to gain relief | The consequence makes the behaviour less likely |
⚠️ A consequence cannot be classified only by what the researcher or teacher intended. It must be classified according to its effect on behaviour.
If a supposed punishment does not reduce the behaviour, it has not functioned as an effective punishment.
The operant conditioning process
To explain operant conditioning fully, identify four elements:
The behaviour
What action does the person or animal perform?
The consequence
What happens immediately after the behaviour?
The type of consequence
Is something desirable added, something unpleasant removed, or is the behaviour punished?
The effect on future behaviour
Does the behaviour become more or less likely?
For example:
A pupil contributes an answer during a lesson. The teacher praises the pupil. The pupil begins contributing more frequently.
Behaviour: contributing an answer
Consequence: receiving praise
Type: positive reinforcement
Effect: contributing becomes more likely
Applying negative reinforcement to avoidance
Negative reinforcement is particularly important when explaining avoidance behaviour.
Consider a person who fears dogs:
The person sees a dog.
They experience anxiety.
They cross the road to avoid the dog.
Their anxiety decreases.
The relief reinforces crossing the road.
Avoidance becomes more likely in the future.
Crossing the road is negatively reinforced because it removes the unpleasant feeling of anxiety.
This helps explain why avoidance can maintain a phobia even when the person is no longer in genuine danger. The application is developed further in the behavioural explanation of phobias.
Operant conditioning and classical conditioning
Operant and classical conditioning are both learning processes within the behaviourist approach, but they explain different forms of learning.
Classical conditioning | Operant conditioning |
Learning through association between stimuli | Learning through the consequences of behaviour |
Often involves automatic or reflexive responses | Usually concerns behaviour that acts on the environment |
A neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus | A behaviour is strengthened or weakened by what follows it |
Associated with Pavlov’s research | Associated with Skinner’s research |
A useful memory rule is:
Classical conditioning: what comes before the response?
Operant conditioning: what comes after the behaviour?
Skinner’s research
B. F. Skinner investigated operant conditioning using controlled chambers. These are commonly called operant conditioning chambers or Skinner boxes.
Skinner studied animals such as rats and pigeons. The chamber allowed him to control the consequences of particular behaviours and measure how frequently those behaviours occurred.
A chamber could contain:
A lever that a rat could press.
A key or disc that a pigeon could peck.
A food dispenser.
Lights or sounds.
Equipment for presenting or removing an unpleasant stimulus.
Because the environment was controlled, Skinner could investigate how different consequences affected behaviour.
Positive reinforcement in Skinner’s research
In one arrangement, a rat could press a lever and receive a food pellet.
Initially, the rat might press the lever accidentally. Once pressing produced food, the rat became more likely to press the lever again.
The sequence was:
Lever press → food added → lever pressing increases
The food acted as positive reinforcement because a desirable consequence was added and the lever-pressing behaviour became more frequent.
Negative reinforcement in Skinner’s research
Skinner could also arrange the chamber so that performing a behaviour removed or stopped an unpleasant stimulus.
For example, a rat might learn that pressing a lever stopped an unpleasant condition.
The sequence was:
Lever press → unpleasant stimulus removed → lever pressing increases
This is negative reinforcement because the behaviour becomes more likely through the removal of something unpleasant.
Punishment in operant conditioning research
A chamber could also be arranged so that a particular response was followed by an unpleasant consequence.
If this reduced the frequency of the response, the consequence functioned as punishment.
The sequence was:
Behaviour → unwanted consequence → behaviour decreases
Skinner’s research therefore showed that behaviour could be influenced systematically by changing what happened immediately after it.
What did Skinner’s research demonstrate?
Skinner’s research demonstrated that consequences can influence the frequency of behaviour.
His findings support three central principles:
Behaviour followed by positive reinforcement is more likely to be repeated.
Behaviour followed by negative reinforcement is more likely to be repeated.
Behaviour followed by punishment may become less likely.
The research also reflects the behaviourist emphasis on observable and measurable behaviour. Skinner could record actions such as lever presses or key pecks rather than relying on reports of private thoughts.
The scientific strengths and limitations of this kind of controlled research are considered in the strengths and limitations of conditioning explanations.
Applying operant conditioning to unfamiliar situations
In an examination, you may be given a scenario and asked to explain behaviour using operant conditioning.
Consider this example:
Every time Amira completes her revision before dinner, her parents stop reminding her to revise. Amira begins completing her revision earlier each day.
The behaviour is completing revision early.
The consequence is that the reminders stop.
The behaviour increases because an unpleasant experience is removed. This is negative reinforcement.
A strong application answer would explain:
Completing the revision is negatively reinforced because it removes the parents’ reminders. The relief from the reminders makes Amira more likely to complete her revision early again.
Simply writing “this is negative reinforcement” would not fully explain the behaviour.
A method for answering application questions
Use the following steps:
Identify the behaviour.
Identify what happens immediately afterwards.
Decide whether the behaviour increases or decreases.
If it increases, decide whether something was added or removed.
Name the correct process.
Use details from the scenario to explain why the behaviour changes.
Effect on behaviour | Consequence | Correct term |
Behaviour increases | Something desirable is added | Positive reinforcement |
Behaviour increases | Something unpleasant is removed or avoided | Negative reinforcement |
Behaviour decreases | An unwanted consequence follows | Punishment |
Later applications of operant conditioning
Operant conditioning appears in several later parts of the course.
The removal of anxiety can negatively reinforce avoidance in the maintenance of phobias.
Reinforcement principles can also be used to change behaviour through behavioural programmes in prisons.
Within addiction, reinforcement is applied to gambling behaviour through partial and variable reinforcement.
These applications use the same central principle: the consequences of behaviour affect whether it is repeated.
Common Mistakes ⚠️
Mistake: Describing negative reinforcement as punishment.
Why this is incorrect:Negative reinforcement increases behaviour by removing or preventing something unpleasant. Punishment decreases behaviour.
How to improve:Always identify whether the behaviour becomes more or less likely before naming the process.
Mistake: Thinking that positive means good and negative means bad.
Why this is incorrect:In operant conditioning, positive means that something is added. Negative means that something is removed.
How to improve:Use the rule:
Positive = added
Negative = removed
Reinforcement = behaviour increases
Mistake: Saying that reinforcement reduces behaviour.
Why this is incorrect:By definition, reinforcement makes behaviour more likely. A consequence that reduces behaviour is punishment.
How to improve:Include the effect on future behaviour every time you define reinforcement.
Mistake: Calling every pleasant consequence positive reinforcement.
Why this is incorrect:A consequence is only a reinforcer if it increases the behaviour that came before it.
How to improve:Explain both the consequence and the resulting increase in behaviour.
Mistake: Explaining operant conditioning as an association between two stimuli.
Why this is incorrect:An association between stimuli describes classical conditioning. Operant conditioning concerns the relationship between behaviour and its consequences.
How to improve:Use the phrase “learning through consequences” when describing operant conditioning.
Mistake: Describing Skinner’s research without identifying the consequence.
Why this is incorrect:Saying only that a rat pressed a lever does not explain operant conditioning. The important part is what happened after the lever was pressed.
How to improve:Use a complete sequence, such as:
Lever press → food pellet → lever pressing increases
Mistake: Assuming that punishment must involve physical harm.
Why this is incorrect:Punishment is defined by its effect on behaviour. It is any consequence that makes the behaviour less likely.
How to improve:Focus on whether the behaviour decreases rather than assuming that a particular type of consequence must be used.
Exam-Style Questions ✍️
Question 1
Which one of the following is an example of negative reinforcement?
A. A pupil receives praise for completing their work.
B. A pupil loses a privilege after breaking a rule.
C. A warning noise stops when a driver fastens their seat belt.
D. A pupil receives a detention and stops calling out.
[1 mark]
reveal mark scheme and indicative content
Answer: C. A warning noise stops when a driver fastens their seat belt
Question 2
Define operant conditioning.
[2 marks]
reveal mark scheme and indicative content
Mark scheme
AO1 = 2
2 marks: Clear definition referring to learning through the consequences of behaviour, where reinforcement increases behaviour and punishment decreases it.
1 mark: Limited or partial definition.
Indicative content
Behaviour is shaped by its consequences.
Reinforced behaviour becomes more likely.
Punished behaviour becomes less likely.
Example answer
Operant conditioning is learning through the consequences of behaviour, where reinforcement makes a behaviour more likely to occur again and punishment makes it less likely.
Question 3
Distinguish between positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement.
[4 marks]
reveal mark scheme and indicative content
Mark scheme
AO1 = 4
Award up to 2 marks for each type of reinforcement.
Indicative content
Positive reinforcement
A desirable or rewarding stimulus is presented following behaviour.
This increases the likelihood that the behaviour will occur again.
Negative reinforcement
An unpleasant or aversive stimulus is removed or avoided following behaviour.
This also increases the likelihood that the behaviour will occur again.
The crucial point is that both are reinforcement, so both strengthen behaviour. "Positive" means something is added and "negative" means something is removed.
Example answer
Positive reinforcement occurs when a desirable consequence is added after a behaviour, increasing the likelihood that the behaviour will be repeated. Negative reinforcement also increases behaviour, but it does so because an unpleasant stimulus is removed or avoided. Therefore, both strengthen behaviour, but they involve different types of consequence.
Question 4
Explain why punishment is not a type of reinforcement.
[2 marks]
reveal mark scheme and indicative content
Mark scheme
AO1 = 2
1 mark: Reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated.
1 mark: Punishment decreases the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated.
Example answer
Punishment is not reinforcement because reinforcement makes a behaviour more likely to occur again, whereas punishment is a consequence that makes the behaviour less likely to occur again.
Question 5
Describe Skinner’s research into operant conditioning.
[6 marks]
reveal mark scheme and indicative content
Mark scheme
AO1 = 6
5 to 6 marks: Knowledge of Skinner's research is clear, accurate and reasonably detailed. Operant-conditioning terminology is used effectively.
3 to 4 marks: Some accurate knowledge is present, but description lacks detail or contains minor inaccuracies.
1 to 2 marks: Limited knowledge of Skinner's research.
0 marks: No relevant content.
Indicative content
Skinner investigated operant conditioning using animals such as rats and pigeons.
Animals were placed in a controlled operant conditioning chamber, often called a Skinner box.
The chamber allowed particular behaviours and their consequences to be carefully controlled.
A rat might accidentally press a lever.
Pressing the lever could cause a food pellet to be delivered.
Food acted as positive reinforcement.
The rat became increasingly likely to press the lever.
Other arrangements allowed an animal's behaviour to remove or avoid an unpleasant stimulus, demonstrating negative reinforcement.
Punishment could also be investigated by presenting an unpleasant consequence following behaviour.
Skinner concluded that behaviour can be shaped by its consequences.
The current specification explicitly requires operant conditioning, types of reinforcement and Skinner's research.
Example answer
Skinner investigated operant conditioning using animals such as rats and pigeons in specially controlled chambers. In one procedure, a rat could press a lever that caused a food pellet to be delivered. Initially the lever might be pressed accidentally, but because food followed the behaviour, lever pressing became more frequent. The food therefore acted as positive reinforcement. Skinner also investigated situations in which behaviour allowed an animal to remove or avoid an unpleasant stimulus, demonstrating negative reinforcement. His research showed that the consequences of behaviour can affect how likely that behaviour is to occur again.
Question 6
Whenever Leo checks his school bag before leaving home, his father stops reminding him about forgotten equipment. Leo begins checking his bag every morning.
Using your knowledge of operant conditioning, explain why Leo now checks his bag regularly.
[4 marks]
reveal mark scheme and indicative content
Mark scheme
AO2 = 4
Award 1 mark each for:
Leo's bag checking is followed by his father's reminders stopping.
The reminders are an unpleasant or aversive stimulus for Leo.
Their removal is negative reinforcement.
As this consequence makes checking rewarding, Leo becomes more likely to check his bag every morning.
Example answer
Leo's checking behaviour is negatively reinforced. When he checks his bag, his father's reminders stop, removing an unpleasant stimulus. This relief acts as reinforcement, so checking his bag becomes more likely to occur again. Repeated negative reinforcement therefore explains why Leo now checks it every morning.
This follows the same operant-conditioning principle AQA credits when relief from an unpleasant experience increases a behaviour
Question 7
A researcher places a rat in an operant conditioning chamber and records how many times it presses a lever during a ten-minute period.
Condition | Consequence of pressing the lever | Number of lever presses |
A | No consequence | 5 |
B | A food pellet is delivered | 20 |
C | An unpleasant sound begins | 2 |
a) Identify the type of operant conditioning shown in Condition B.
[1 mark]
b) Explain why the number of lever presses was higher in Condition B than in Condition A.
[3 marks]
c) Calculate the percentage increase in lever pressing from Condition A to Condition B.
Use:
Percentage increase = increase ÷ original value × 100
Show your working.
[2 marks]
d) Explain how the result in Condition C illustrates punishment.
[2 marks]
reveal mark scheme and indicative content
a) Positive reinforcement
b)
AO2 = 3
Award 1 mark each for:
In Condition B, pressing the lever produces a food pellet.
The food pellet acts as positive reinforcement.
This increases the likelihood of lever pressing, explaining the increase from 5 presses in Condition A to 20 in Condition B.
Example answer
In Condition B, pressing the lever causes a food pellet to be delivered. The food acts as positive reinforcement because a desirable consequence follows the behaviour. This makes lever pressing more likely, explaining why the rat presses 20 times compared with only 5 when there is no consequence.
c)
1 mark for correct working.
1 mark for 300%.
Working
Increase:
20−5=15
Percentage increase:
15÷5×100=300%
Answer
300%
d)
AO2 = 2
1 mark: An unpleasant sound occurs following lever pressing.
1 mark: Lever pressing is reduced to only 2 presses, showing that the consequence decreases the behaviour.
Example answer
The unpleasant sound is presented as a consequence of pressing the lever. Lever pressing falls to only 2 presses, showing punishment because the consequence makes the behaviour less likely to occur.
Question 8
Explain operant conditioning. Refer to positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement and Skinner’s research in your answer.
[8 marks]
reveal mark scheme and indicative content
Mark scheme
Suggested allocation: AO1 = 8
7 to 8 marks: Knowledge and understanding of operant conditioning is accurate and detailed. Positive and negative reinforcement are clearly explained and Skinner's research is used effectively. Specialist terminology is accurate.
5 to 6 marks: Knowledge is generally accurate and reasonably detailed. There is clear reference to reinforcement and Skinner, although some aspects may lack development.
3 to 4 marks: Some relevant knowledge is present, but the explanation is limited or incomplete.
1 to 2 marks: Very limited relevant knowledge.
0 marks: No relevant content.
Indicative content
Operant conditioning
A form of learning in which behaviour is shaped by its consequences.
Consequences influence whether behaviour becomes more or less likely in future.
Reinforcement increases behaviour.
Punishment decreases behaviour.
Positive reinforcement
A desirable consequence is added following behaviour.
This increases the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated.
Example: receiving food after pressing a lever.
Negative reinforcement
An unpleasant stimulus is removed or avoided following behaviour.
This also increases the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated.
It should not be confused with punishment.
Skinner's research
Skinner studied animals such as rats and pigeons in controlled operant chambers.
Animals could perform responses such as lever pressing or key pecking.
A food reward following the response demonstrated positive reinforcement.
Behaviour became more frequent when it was reinforced.
Procedures in which behaviour removed or avoided an unpleasant stimulus demonstrated negative reinforcement.
The research showed how environmental consequences can shape behaviour.
AQA requires students to know all three elements together, operant conditioning, types of reinforcement and Skinner's research.
Example answer
Operant conditioning is a form of learning in which behaviour is shaped by its consequences. If a consequence is reinforcing, the behaviour that produced it becomes more likely to occur again. If a consequence is punishing, the behaviour becomes less likely.
Positive reinforcement occurs when a desirable stimulus is presented after a behaviour. For example, if pressing a lever produces food, the animal becomes more likely to press the lever again. Negative reinforcement also increases behaviour, but involves removing or avoiding something unpleasant. For example, a behaviour that stops an unpleasant stimulus is likely to be repeated because of the relief it produces. Negative reinforcement is therefore different from punishment because reinforcement always increases behaviour.
Skinner demonstrated these principles using animals such as rats and pigeons in operant conditioning chambers. A rat might initially press a lever accidentally and receive food. As the food positively reinforced lever pressing, the behaviour became increasingly frequent. Skinner also investigated learning where behaviour allowed animals to remove or avoid unpleasant stimulation. His research supported the behaviourist view that behaviour can be learned and shaped through its environmental consequences.
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