Classical and modern liberalism | Edexcel A-Level Politics
Updated: 6 days ago
For Specification 9PL0
Edexcel A-Level Politics | Free Revision Notes
Estimated study time:Â 45 to 55 minutes
Classical and modern liberalism share a commitment to individualism and freedom but disagree significantly about how those principles are best achieved. This Classical and modern liberalism A-Level Politics revision page compares the minimal and enabling state, egoistical and developmental individualism, negative and positive freedom, and laissez-faire capitalism and Keynesianism. These divisions build directly on liberal ideas about individual liberty and liberal rationalism and equality, and are central to Political Ideas essays on liberalism.
Learning Objectives 🎯
By the end of this revision page, you should be able to:
Explain the defining features of classical liberalism and its preference for a minimal state.
Explain why modern liberalism developed and why it supports an enabling state.
Compare classical and modern liberal views of individualism.
Compare negative freedom with positive freedom and relate each to the liberal strands.
Explain and compare liberal approaches to laissez-faire capitalism and Keynesianism.
Analyse the extent of agreement and disagreement between classical and modern liberalism.
Revision Notes đź“š
Classical and modern liberalism A-Level Politics revision
Edexcel identifies two main strands within liberalism:
classical liberalism
modern liberalism
The specification defines classical liberalism as the philosophy of early liberals who believed that individual freedom would best be achieved with the state playing a minimal role.
Modern liberalism emerged as a reaction against free-market capitalism, based on the belief that it had left many individuals unable to be genuinely free. Modern liberals therefore rejected the idea that freedom could always be understood simply as being left alone.
The disagreement is not a simple contest between one strand that values liberty and another that values government. Both are liberal, so both begin with the individual and the importance of freedom.
Their central disagreement concerns what genuine individual freedom requires.
What unites classical and modern liberals?
Before looking at the divisions, it is important to establish the common liberal foundation.
Both classical and modern liberals accept the wider core principles of liberalism, including:
the primacy of the individual
the importance of freedom
the rational nature of human beings
equality and fair treatment
the need for the state, alongside limits on its power
the importance of freedom under the law
The 2020 Edexcel mark scheme explicitly recognised agreement between the strands over individualism, freedom under law, rationalism, foundational and formal equality, and tolerance.
This matters enormously in essays. A question asking about divisions within liberalism does not mean you should present classical and modern liberals as completely different ideologies.
Their disputes exist within a shared liberal framework.
Classical liberalism
Classical liberalism developed among early liberals and is based on the belief that individual freedom is best protected when the state plays a minimal role.
Classical liberalism can be understood through four closely connected principles:
Egoistical individualism
Negative freedom
The minimal state
Laissez-faire capitalism
Each idea reinforces the others.
Classical liberalism and egoistical individualism
Egoistical individualism associates individual freedom with self-interest and self-reliance.
Classical liberals therefore place great faith in individuals being able to direct their own lives.
The logic is:
Individuals are rational
↓
They can identify their own interests
↓
They should take responsibility for their own choices
↓
External authorities should interfere as little as is necessary
This does not mean that classical liberals reject society or the state. Instead, their starting point is an independent, self-reliant individual whose freedom must be protected.
This develops the distinction introduced in egoistical and developmental individualism.
Classical liberalism and negative freedom
Classical liberalism is closely associated with negative freedom.
Negative freedom means the absence of external constraints and non-interference within the individual's private sphere.
Freedom is therefore greatest when unnecessary barriers to individual choice are removed.
For a classical liberal, the central danger is that another person, institution or government may prevent a rational individual from making their own choices.
The connection is clear:
Egoistical individualism
↓
Individuals should be self-reliant
↓
They need freedom from unnecessary interference
↓
Negative freedom
The classical liberal minimal state
The specification defines a minimal state as one in which the role of the state is restricted in order to preserve individual liberty.
Classical liberals do not argue that there should be no state.
As you saw in the liberal view of the state, all liberals recognise that political authority is necessary to prevent disorder. The issue is how extensive that authority should become.
Classical liberals fear that a larger state could:
interfere with individual choices
reduce self-reliance
place unnecessary external constraints on individuals
threaten personal liberty
The minimal state therefore attempts to perform necessary political functions without becoming an unnecessary obstacle to freedom.
Locke and limited government
John Locke is particularly useful for illustrating this aspect of liberalism.
His specified ideas include:
social contract theory, where society, state and government are based on a theoretical voluntary agreement
limited government, where government should be limited and based on consent from below
Locke therefore helps demonstrate the liberal argument that government is necessary but derives its legitimacy from individuals and should not possess unlimited authority.
This will be developed further in Locke, Wollstonecraft and Mill.
Classical liberalism and the economy
The classical liberal preference for limited government extends into economic life.
The key term specified by Edexcel is laissez-faire capitalism.
Laissez-faire capitalism is an economic system organised by the market, where goods are produced for exchange and profit and wealth is privately owned.
Classical liberals therefore favour limited state involvement in the economy.
This follows directly from their other beliefs:
Egoistical individualism
↓
Individuals are self-reliant
↓
Negative freedom requires limited interference
↓
The state should remain minimal
↓
Economic activity should therefore largely operate through laissez-faire capitalism
The economic argument is not separate from classical liberal ideas about human nature or freedom. It is an application of them.
Modern liberalism
Modern liberalism emerged as a reaction against free-market capitalism.
Modern liberals argued that being formally left alone did not necessarily make an individual genuinely free. Economic and social circumstances could prevent people from developing their abilities and exercising meaningful choice.
The specification therefore states that freedom could no longer simply be defined as being left alone.
Modern liberalism can be understood through another four connected principles:
Developmental individualism
Positive freedom
The enabling state
Keynesianism
Modern liberalism and developmental individualism
Developmental individualism links individual freedom to human flourishing.
Modern liberals agree with classical liberals that the individual matters most. However, they understand the needs of the individual differently.
The question becomes not only:
Is the individual being left alone?
but also:
Is the individual actually able to develop and realise their potential?
This is still individualism. Modern liberalism does not replace the individual with the state or the collective. Instead, it argues that individuals may require conditions that allow them genuinely to flourish.
Modern liberalism and positive freedom
Developmental individualism is closely linked to positive freedom.
Positive freedom means that freedom is about personal fulfilment and the realisation of potential.
The distinction from classical liberalism is therefore fundamental:
Classical liberalism | Modern liberalism |
Freedom from unnecessary interference | Freedom involving the ability to fulfil potential |
Negative freedom | Positive freedom |
Egoistical individualism | Developmental individualism |
Modern liberals do not necessarily reject negative freedom. Edexcel's 2020 mark scheme distinguishes classical liberal support for negative freedom from modern liberal support for positive and negative freedom.
The key division is therefore that modern liberals believe negative freedom alone may be insufficient.
Why might being "left alone" be insufficient?
Imagine two individuals who face no direct legal restriction preventing them from developing their talents.
A purely negative conception of freedom asks whether an external authority is interfering with them.
A positive conception also asks whether they are genuinely able to develop their abilities.
Modern liberalism arose because its supporters believed free-market capitalism could leave individuals formally free but unable to realise their potential.
Modern liberals therefore developed a different understanding of what the state could do.
The modern liberal enabling state
The specification defines an enabling state as a larger state that helps individuals to achieve their potential and be free.
This is one of the clearest dividing lines between classical and modern liberalism.
Classical liberals ask:
How can the state be prevented from restricting freedom?
Modern liberals also ask:
How can the state help create the conditions in which individuals are actually free?
The state can therefore be seen not simply as a possible threat to liberty but also as something capable of enabling liberty.
The enabling state and individualism
It is easy to make a common mistake here.
Modern liberal support for a larger state does not mean that modern liberals have abandoned individualism.
The enabling state is justified precisely because it is intended to help individuals develop their abilities and realise their potential.
The chain is:
Developmental individualism
↓
Individuals should be able to flourish
↓
This requires positive freedom
↓
A larger state may help create the conditions for genuine freedom
↓
The enabling state
This distinction was reflected in the 2023 Edexcel mark scheme, which linked classical liberalism to egoistical individualism, negative freedom and the minimal state, and modern liberalism to developmental individualism, positive freedom and the enabling state.
Rawls and the enabling state
John Rawls is particularly useful for illustrating modern liberalism.
His specified ideas include:
a theory of justice, where society must be just and guarantee each citizen a life worth living
the veil of ignorance, where people decide what kind of society they would choose without knowing their own position within it
These ideas exemplify modern liberal concern with creating a society in which individual freedom is meaningful rather than merely formal.
Rawls should not be treated as a substitute for explaining modern liberalism. Instead, his specified ideas can be used to support an argument about positive freedom, justice or the enabling state.
You will explore him more fully in Rawls and Friedan.
Modern liberalism and the economy
Modern liberalism emerged partly from dissatisfaction with unrestricted free-market capitalism.
Its economic approach is connected to Keynesianism.
The specification defines Keynesianism as an economic system that requires government involvement to stimulate the economy in order to achieve full employment and price stability.
This differs significantly from classical liberal support for laissez-faire capitalism.
Modern liberals are more willing to accept government involvement in economic life when intervention is intended to make genuine individual freedom possible.
Laissez-faire capitalism and Keynesianism compared
Classical liberalism | Modern liberalism |
Laissez-faire capitalism | Keynesianism |
Limited state involvement | Greater government involvement |
Economy largely organised through the market | Government may intervene to stimulate the economy |
Linked to negative freedom | Linked to positive freedom |
Linked to the minimal state | Linked to the enabling state |
The 2024 Edexcel mark scheme emphasised this division. Classical liberals were associated with a freer market and a minimal economic role for government, while modern liberals accepted regulation, economic intervention and welfare as possible means of promoting freedom.
Modern liberals and welfare
Edexcel's 2024 mark scheme also identifies welfare as an important area of disagreement.
Classical liberals emphasise:
self-sufficiency
self-reliance
negative freedom
concern about an expanded state
Modern liberals regard welfare more positively where it helps individuals develop their skills, talents and potential.
This again shows why the economic disagreement is really a disagreement over freedom and individualism.
For classical liberals:
Greater state activity may restrict freedom.
For modern liberals:
Appropriate state activity may increase genuine freedom.
Comparing the minimal and enabling state
Minimal state | Enabling state | |
Associated strand | Classical liberalism | Modern liberalism |
Main aim | Preserve individual liberty by restricting state power | Help individuals realise their potential and become free |
Individualism | Egoistical | Developmental |
Freedom | Primarily negative | Positive as well as negative |
Economic approach | Laissez-faire capitalism | Keynesianism |
View of intervention | State intervention may restrict liberty | Some intervention may enable liberty |
Shared liberal concern | Individual freedom | Individual freedom |
The final row is the most important.
Both strands are trying to maximise individual freedom. They disagree about the means required to achieve it.
Comparing liberal views of individualism
Both classical and modern liberals are individualists.
The difference lies in their understanding of the individual.
Classical liberals
Classical liberalism emphasises egoistical individualism:
self-interest
self-reliance
personal responsibility
independence from unnecessary interference
Modern liberals
Modern liberalism emphasises developmental individualism:
human flourishing
individual development
fulfilment of potential
conditions that make meaningful choice possible
The disagreement can therefore be expressed as:
Should freedom mainly protect the self-reliant individual from interference, or should it also help individuals develop their potential?
Comparing liberal views of freedom
The distinction between the strands becomes even clearer through freedom.
Classical liberals and negative freedom
Classical liberals emphasise the absence of external restrictions.
The state threatens liberty when it interferes unnecessarily.
Modern liberals and positive freedom
Modern liberals argue that genuine freedom can also require the ability to achieve fulfilment.
The state may therefore sometimes increase rather than reduce freedom.
This difference explains much of the wider disagreement over the state and the economy.
Comparing liberal views of the economy
The economy provides one of the clearest examples of division within liberalism.
Edexcel's 2024 mark scheme identifies important areas of agreement as well as disagreement.
Both strands support:
a market economy
competition
an economy intended to enhance individual freedom
However, they disagree over:
how free the market should be from state interference
the size and role of the state in the economy
welfare
whether government involvement restricts or enables individual freedom
This means an essay should not simply claim:
Classical liberals support capitalism, modern liberals do not.
That would be inaccurate.
The more precise argument is:
Both strands accept a market economy, but they disagree significantly about how far government should intervene in it.
The economy and freedom
The deepest disagreement is therefore not really about whether freedom matters.
It is about how freedom is achieved through the economy.
For classical liberals:
Economic freedom
↓
Limited interference
↓
Self-reliant individuals make choices
↓
Individual liberty is maximised
For modern liberals:
An unrestricted market may leave some individuals unable to flourish
↓
Government intervention may be justified
↓
Individuals gain greater ability to realise their potential
↓
Individual liberty is maximised
Both routes end with the same liberal objective: freedom of the individual.
The state as the central dividing line
The contrast between the minimal and enabling state brings together almost every major division within liberalism.
Issue | Classical liberals | Modern liberals |
Individualism | Egoistical | Developmental |
Freedom | Negative freedom | Positive as well as negative freedom |
State | Minimal | Enabling |
Economy | Laissez-faire capitalism | Keynesianism |
Intervention | Viewed with greater suspicion | More readily accepted where it increases freedom |
Edexcel's 2020 mark scheme described the extent of the state's role as a clear dividing line within liberalism.
However, both strands still recognise that the state is necessary. The difference concerns its extent and purpose, not whether it should exist at all.
Areas of agreement within liberalism
Students sometimes concentrate so heavily on classical versus modern differences that they forget the areas of unity.
This is particularly dangerous in a "To what extent?"Â Political Ideas essay.
Classical and modern liberals remain united in important ways.
Both prioritise the individual
Individualism remains the defining feature of liberalism.
The disagreement concerns the type of individualism, not whether individuals matter.
Both value freedom
Both want individuals to be free.
They disagree about the meaning and requirements of freedom.
Both accept the state
Neither classical nor modern liberalism is based on eliminating the state.
Both accept that some political authority is necessary.
Both place limits on state power
Even modern liberals do not believe the state should possess unlimited power.
The liberal suspicion of unchecked political authority remains.
Both retain an important role for markets
The 2024 Edexcel mark scheme notes that classical and modern liberals both support a free-market economy, competition and the use of the economy to increase individual freedom.
Their disagreement concerns the extent of government involvement.
Areas of disagreement within liberalism
The clearest divisions concern the means by which individual liberty can be secured.
Individualism
Classical: egoistical
Modern: developmental
Freedom
Classical: emphasis on negative freedom
Modern: accepts positive freedom as well as negative freedom
State
Classical: minimal state
Modern: enabling state
Economy
Classical: laissez-faire capitalism
Modern: Keynesianism
These differences are closely related rather than separate topics.
A strong essay should therefore show the chain of reasoning rather than simply list four disagreements.
How the ideas fit together
One of the best ways to revise the two strands is through two connected chains.
Classical liberalism
Rational individual
↓
Egoistical individualism
↓
Self-interest and self-reliance
↓
Negative freedom
↓
Freedom from external constraints
↓
Minimal state
↓
Limited economic intervention
↓
Laissez-faire capitalism
Modern liberalism
Rational individual
↓
Developmental individualism
↓
Human flourishing
↓
Positive freedom
↓
Realisation of individual potential
↓
Enabling state
↓
Greater willingness to intervene in economic life
↓
Keynesianism
The two chains appear different, but they begin and end at similar points.
Both start with the individual and both aim to secure liberty.
This provides a powerful evaluative argument: liberalism may be divided over the means of securing freedom while remaining substantially united over the goal.
Using liberal thinkers effectively
Edexcel requires the five specified thinkers to exemplify the content rather than being studied through detailed biography.
For this topic, useful connections include:
John Locke
Use Locke to support arguments about:
social contract
limited government
restrictions on state power
John Stuart Mill
Use Mill's harm principle to explain why liberals want a large sphere of individual liberty.
The harm principle states that individuals should be free to do anything except harm other individuals.
John Rawls
Use Rawls to support modern liberal ideas about:
justice
individual opportunity
the enabling state
the conditions required for genuine freedom
Betty Friedan
Friedan's specified ideas of legal equality and equal opportunity can be linked to developmental arguments about removing barriers that prevent individuals from achieving their potential.
The next two lessons, liberal thinkers and classical liberal ideas and modern liberal thinkers, develop these connections in greater detail.
These definitions follow the Edexcel specification glossary for liberalism.
Hints from the Examiner Reports đź’ˇ
Classical and modern liberalism has been examined directly in several Edexcel Paper 1 Political Ideas questions, including questions on acceptance of classical ideas, society and the economy, fear of the state, and divisions over the economy.
Examiner hint:Â Answer the precise wording of the question rather than reproducing a prepared essay about classical and modern liberalism.
The 2023 examiner report found that many candidates knew the two strands well but answered a generic question about the liberal state instead of focusing on whether liberals feared the state. Those answers lost marks because their knowledge was not sufficiently directed towards the question.
Before writing, identify the precise issue:
state? economy? individualism? freedom? democracy?
Then make every paragraph answer that issue.
Examiner hint:Â Compare classical and modern liberals within the same paragraph.
The 2023 report found that weaker candidates often wrote one paragraph describing classical liberals and another describing modern liberals. This made comparison difficult. Stronger responses directly compared the strands around the same issue.
For example:
Issue: freedom
Classical liberals emphasise negative freedom because external interference threatens the self-reliant individual. In contrast, modern liberals believe negative freedom alone may be insufficient and therefore support positive freedom. However, both interpretations ultimately seek to maximise individual liberty.
That structure naturally creates AO2.
Examiner hint:Â Include both agreement and disagreement.
The 2023 report identified a recurring weakness in Political Ideas answers where candidates discussed divisions but failed to explore areas of agreement. It also identified AO3 as a particularly weak assessment objective.
For this lesson, do not assume that "classical versus modern" automatically means complete disagreement.
A stronger answer might argue:
agreement:Â both prioritise individualism and freedom
disagreement:Â they define the conditions of freedom differently
judgement:Â their disagreements about the means are significant, but the underlying liberal objective remains shared
Examiner hint:Â Make connections between ideas rather than treating them as isolated definitions.
The 2023 examiner report praised stronger responses that linked the state to liberty, individualism, the economy and minimal versus enabling interpretations.
A paragraph about the state can therefore demonstrate several concepts:
egoistical individualism → negative freedom → minimal state → laissez-faire
versus
developmental individualism → positive freedom → enabling state → Keynesianism
Examiner hint:Â Use thinkers to support the analysis rather than organising the whole essay around thinkers.
The 2023 report noted that strand-focused discussion was the correct approach and discouraged thinker-led essays.
The specification makes the same point, stating that thinkers should exemplify the required ideas rather than becoming detailed biographical studies.
Examiner hint:Â Your AO3 judgement must answer "how much?"
The 2025 report highlights that strong ideology answers recognise the "to what extent?" demand, organise discussion thematically, use thinkers to support analysis and consider both agreement and disagreement. It also states that evaluation is strongest when it is evidenced and sustained throughout the essay.
Do not save your judgement for the last three lines. Make mini-judgements throughout.
Common Mistakes ⚠️
Mistake: Saying classical liberals support freedom but modern liberals support equality
Why this is incorrect: Both strands are liberal and both prioritise individual freedom. Modern liberal support for a larger state is justified as a means of helping individuals become genuinely free.
How to improve: Frame the disagreement as:
different understandings of how individual freedom is achieved
rather than:
freedom versus equality.
Mistake: Treating modern liberalism as anti-capitalist
Why this is incorrect: Modern liberalism emerged as a reaction against unrestricted free-market capitalism, but Edexcel's 2024 mark scheme identifies continued liberal agreement over the importance of a market economy and competition.
How to improve:
Distinguish:
classical liberal laissez-faire capitalism
modern liberal acceptance of greater government involvement through Keynesianism
The dispute concerns the degree of state involvement.
Mistake: Saying modern liberals reject negative freedom
Why this is incorrect: Modern liberals add a stronger conception of positive freedom. The Edexcel mark scheme identifies them as supporting positive and negative freedom.
How to improve: Write that modern liberals regard negative freedom alone as insufficient.
Mistake: Confusing minimal government with no government
Why this is incorrect: A minimal state is still a state. Edexcel defines it as a state whose role is restricted to preserve individual liberty.
How to improve: Remember:
minimal ≠absent
Classical liberals accept the necessity of political authority while seeking to restrict its scope.
Mistake: Assuming an enabling state means unlimited government
Why this is incorrect: Modern liberals remain liberals. They continue to value individual liberty and recognise the dangers of unchecked state power.
How to improve: Explain that the state is justified where it enables individual freedom and potential, rather than treating expansion of government as an end in itself.
Mistake: Describing the strands in separate halves of an essay
Why this is incorrect: This reduces direct comparison and makes AO2 and AO3 harder to develop. The 2023 examiner report specifically identified this as a weakness.
How to improve:
Organise your paragraphs thematically:
individualism
freedom
the state
the economy
Compare both strands within each paragraph.
Exam-Style Questions ✍️
Question 1
Define the minimal state. (1 mark)
reveal mark scheme and indicative content
Answer:
A state whose role is restricted in order to preserve individual liberty.
Question 2
Define the enabling state. (1 mark)
reveal mark scheme and indicative content
Answer:
A larger state that helps individuals achieve their potential and be free.
Question 3
Explain one difference between egoistical and developmental individualism. (4 marks)
reveal mark scheme and indicative content
Indicative answer:
Egoistical individualism associates freedom with self-interest and self-reliance, whereas developmental individualism connects freedom to human flourishing. Classical liberals therefore emphasise the independence of the individual, while modern liberals focus more strongly on whether individuals can realise their potential.
Question 4
Explain why classical liberals favour a minimal state. (4 marks)
reveal mark scheme and indicative content
Indicative answer:
Classical liberals emphasise negative freedom, meaning freedom from external constraints and unnecessary interference. A powerful state may interfere with individual choice and reduce self-reliance. Classical liberals therefore favour a minimal state whose role is restricted in order to preserve individual liberty.
Question 5
Consider the following views:
Liberal A:
"An individual is most free when unnecessary government interference has been removed and people are able to pursue their own interests."
Liberal B:
"Simply leaving people alone does not guarantee freedom. Government can sometimes help individuals develop their abilities and fulfil their potential."
Explain how these statements illustrate different strands of liberalism. (6 marks)
reveal mark scheme and indicative content
Indicative answer:
Liberal A reflects classical liberalism because the statement emphasises egoistical individualism, negative freedom and restricted government. This supports the idea of a minimal state.
Liberal B reflects modern liberalism because the statement emphasises developmental individualism and positive freedom. This can justify an enabling state that helps individuals realise their potential.
Both remain liberal because both regard individual freedom as the objective.
Question 6
Analyse why classical and modern liberal views of the economy reflect their different understandings of freedom. (8 marks)
reveal mark scheme and indicative content
Indicative mark scheme:
Strong answers should explain that:
classical liberals emphasise negative freedom
negative freedom requires protection against unnecessary external intervention
this supports a minimal state
in economic life this is associated with laissez-faire capitalism
modern liberals believe negative freedom may be insufficient
positive freedom requires individuals to be able to realise their potential
modern liberals therefore accept an enabling state
Keynesianism allows government involvement to stimulate the economy
the economic disagreement therefore follows from contrasting conceptions of individual liberty
both strands nevertheless seek an economy that promotes individual freedom
Higher-level responses should demonstrate the causal links between freedom, the state and the economy.
Question 7
Analyse the extent to which classical and modern liberalism agree about individualism and freedom. (8 marks)
reveal mark scheme and indicative content
Indicative answer:
There is significant underlying agreement because both strands make the individual central to society and regard liberty as a defining liberal principle. Both therefore oppose unlimited state power.
However, they disagree about what freedom requires. Classical liberalism emphasises egoistical individualism and negative freedom, meaning that self-reliant individuals should normally be left free from interference. Modern liberalism emphasises developmental individualism and positive freedom, arguing that genuine liberty includes the ability to flourish and realise potential.
The disagreement is therefore substantial in practical consequences, particularly for the role of the state, but narrower at the level of ultimate principle because both strands seek to maximise individual freedom.
Question 8
To what extent is liberalism divided over its approach to the economy?
You must use appropriate thinkers you have studied to support your answer and consider both sides in a balanced way. (24 marks)
reveal mark scheme and indicative content
Indicative mark scheme
This question closely reflects the type of Political Ideas question used by Edexcel. A question on liberal divisions over the economy appeared in the 2024 examination.
Areas of agreement
A strong answer could explain that classical and modern liberals both:
see the economy as serving the individual
support a market economy
support competition
believe economic arrangements should enhance individual freedom
retain a liberal suspicion of excessive state control
The 2024 mark scheme identified these as important areas of liberal economic unity.
Areas of disagreement
Classical liberals:
favour laissez-faire capitalism
emphasise egoistical individualism
prioritise negative freedom
favour the minimal state
are more suspicious of government intervention in the economy
Modern liberals:
accept Keynesianism
emphasise developmental individualism
support positive freedom
favour an enabling state
accept greater government involvement where it helps individuals become genuinely free
take a more positive view of welfare where it promotes individual development
The 2024 mark scheme explicitly connects these differences over the economy to contrasting views of individualism, freedom, the state and welfare.
Appropriate thinkers
Locke can support classical liberal arguments about limited government and consent.
Mill can support the wider liberal commitment to individual liberty through the harm principle.
Rawls can exemplify modern liberal arguments about justice and the conditions needed for individuals to enjoy meaningful freedom.
Friedan can support developmental arguments about removing barriers that prevent individuals from realising their potential.
Do not turn the essay into four separate thinker summaries.
AO2 analysis
The strongest analysis should explain why the economic differences exist.
For example:
Classical liberal support for laissez-faire is not an isolated economic preference. It follows from egoistical individualism and negative freedom because state interference can restrict self-reliant individuals. Modern liberals reach a different economic conclusion because developmental individualism and positive freedom mean that some government involvement can increase an individual's genuine ability to act.
That chain moves from AO1 knowledge to AO2 analysis.
AO3 evaluation
A strong judgement could argue that liberalism is significantly divided over the degree of state involvement in the economy, particularly over laissez-faire, Keynesianism and welfare.
However, the division should not be exaggerated. Both strands remain committed to individualism, liberty and an important role for the market. Their deepest disagreement is therefore about the means by which an economy can maximise freedom, rather than the ultimate purpose of economic arrangements.
A sophisticated conclusion might therefore judge that:
Liberalism is substantially divided over economic methods but less divided over economic objectives, because both classical and modern liberals ultimately seek an economy that enhances individual liberty.
That distinction between means and ends gives you a clear basis for sustained AO3 evaluation throughout the essay.
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