Locke, Wollstonecraft and Mill | Edexcel A-Level Politics
Updated: 6 days ago
For Specification 9PL0
Edexcel A-Level Politics | Free Revision Notes
Estimated study time:Â 45 to 55 minutes
Locke, Wollstonecraft and Mill are three of the five specified liberal thinkers in Edexcel A-Level Politics. This Locke, Wollstonecraft and Mill A-Level Politics revision page focuses strictly on the ideas Edexcel requires: Locke's social contract and limited government, Wollstonecraft's arguments about reason and formal equality, and Mill's harm principle and tolerance. Together, their ideas help illustrate the liberal commitments to individualism, rationalism, freedom, equality and limits on political power developed in classical and modern liberalism.
Learning Objectives 🎯
By the end of this revision page, you should be able to:
Explain John Locke's social contract theory and its connection to political consent.
Explain Locke's argument for limited government.
Explain Mary Wollstonecraft's belief that women are rational and independent beings capable of reason.
Explain Wollstonecraft's case for formal equality, civil liberties and the right of women to pursue careers.
Explain John Stuart Mill's harm principle as a limit on individual freedom.
Explain Mill's principle of tolerance and relate all three thinkers to wider liberal ideas.
Revision Notes đź“š
Locke, Wollstonecraft and Mill A-Level Politics revision
Edexcel identifies five required liberal thinkers. This lesson focuses on the first three:
John Locke
Mary Wollstonecraft
John Stuart Mill
The specification gives each thinker two particular ideas. These ideas are used to exemplify the wider liberal principles and divisions studied elsewhere in the course. Edexcel explicitly states that students should focus on these key ideas rather than detailed biographical information about each thinker.
This means you do not need a biography of each thinker. What matters is being able to explain their specified ideas accurately and use those ideas to develop an argument about liberalism.
Thinker | Specified ideas |
John Locke | Social contract theory; limited government |
Mary Wollstonecraft | Reason; formal equality |
John Stuart Mill | Harm principle; tolerance |
John Locke
The two Locke ideas specified by Edexcel are:
Social contract theory
Limited government
Together, they help illustrate the liberal belief that political authority is necessary but must ultimately serve individuals rather than dominate them.
Locke's social contract theory
For Locke, social contract theory means that society, the state and government are based on a theoretical voluntary agreement.
The wider Edexcel glossary defines the social contract as the idea that the state or society is established with the agreement of the people, who respect its laws because those laws serve to protect them.
The central relationship is therefore:
Individuals
↓
theoretically agree to political authority
↓
the state and government are established
↓
individuals respect laws that protect them
This is important because government is not treated as having unlimited authority simply because it exists.
Its authority is connected to agreement and consent.
Consent from below
Locke's theory fits closely with the liberal belief that authority should ultimately derive from individuals.
Edexcel expresses this particularly clearly in Locke's second specified idea: government should be based on consent from below.
"From below" means that legitimate political authority originates with those who are governed rather than simply being imposed upon them from above.
This reflects the wider liberal emphasis on the individual.
If individuals are rational and capable of making decisions about their own interests, political power must take their consent seriously.
This connects Locke directly with liberal rationalism and democracy.
Social contract and the liberal state
Locke's social contract helps explain an important liberal tension introduced in individualism, freedom and the state.
Liberals believe the state is:
necessary because political authority is needed to avoid disorder
potentially threatening because the state possesses the power to remove individual liberty
The social contract provides a way of reconciling these positions.
Government can possess legitimate authority, but that authority exists within a relationship between the individual and the state.
Political authority therefore has a purpose. It is not simply power for its own sake.
Social contract and mechanistic theory
Locke's position can also be related to the wider liberal concept of mechanistic theory.
Edexcel defines mechanistic theory as the idea that the state was created by humans to serve the people and act in their interests.
The concepts fit closely together:
Social contract:Â political society is based upon agreement.
Mechanistic theory:Â the state has been created to serve individuals.
Both place the individual before the political institution.
⚠️ In an examination, be precise. Social contract theory is one of Locke's specifically listed ideas. Mechanistic theory is a wider liberal concept that can be connected to Locke's argument.
Locke's limited government
Locke's second specified idea is limited government.
Edexcel states that Locke believed government should be:
limited
based on consent from below
The argument follows logically from social contract theory.
If government depends on the consent of individuals, it cannot reasonably claim completely unlimited authority over them.
Why must government be limited?
The wider liberal position is that the state has the potential to remove individual liberty.
Government therefore presents liberals with a problem:
Too little political authority can produce disorder.
But:
Too much political authority can threaten liberty.
Locke's answer is not the absence of government. It is limited government.
What does limited government mean?
Edexcel defines limited government more broadly as government constrained through:
checks and balances
a separation of powers
because power has the potential to be corrupting.
This wider liberal definition can be used alongside Locke's specified belief that government should be limited and based on consent.
The key examination point is:
Locke does not reject government. His ideas provide a justification for political authority while simultaneously placing limits upon it.
Locke and individual liberty
Locke's two ideas combine to protect the individual:
Social contract
↓
government rests upon theoretical voluntary agreement
↓
consent from below
↓
government exists with the consent of individuals
↓
limited government
↓
political power cannot simply become unlimited
This makes Locke particularly useful in essays about:
the liberal state
individual freedom
limited government
political consent
liberal democracy
The 2025 examiner report noted that candidates used Locke effectively when they accurately connected him to social contract theory and limited government rather than forcing him into an unrelated argument.
Mary Wollstonecraft
Edexcel specifies two Wollstonecraft ideas:
Reason
Formal equality
Her ideas illustrate the liberal principles of rationalism and equality.
Wollstonecraft and reason
Edexcel states that Wollstonecraft believed women are rational and independent beings capable of reason.
This is a direct application of the wider liberal view of human nature.
Liberalism is based on rationalism, the belief that humans are rational creatures capable of reason and logic. Rationality allows individuals to:
define their own interests
make their own moral choices
contribute to a progressive society
Wollstonecraft applies this principle to women.
Rational and independent individuals
There are two important elements to the specified wording.
Women are:
rational
They are capable of reason.
and:
independent
They are capable of acting as individuals rather than having their judgement defined for them by others.
This makes Wollstonecraft's argument fundamentally liberal.
Her starting point is not simply that one group should receive special treatment. Her starting point is that women possess the same rational capacity that liberalism attributes to individuals more generally.
Reason and individualism
Wollstonecraft's argument therefore links rationalism to individualism.
The logic is:
Women possess reason
↓
women are rational individuals
↓
they are capable of independent judgement
↓
their freedom and legal position should reflect that capacity
This directly develops the ideas covered in rationalism, equality and liberal democracy.
Wollstonecraft and formal equality
Wollstonecraft's second specified idea is formal equality.
Edexcel states that, in order to be free, women should:
enjoy full civil liberties
be allowed to have a career
The wider Edexcel definition of formal equality is the idea that all individuals should possess the same legal and political rights in society.
Wollstonecraft therefore connects individual freedom to equal legal status.
Formal equality and liberty
For Wollstonecraft, equality and freedom are closely connected.
If women are rational and independent individuals, denying them full civil liberties conflicts with the liberal principle that rational individuals should be capable of directing their own lives.
The chain is:
Reason
↓
women are rational and independent
↓
they should be recognised as individuals
↓
they require formal equality
↓
full civil liberties help make individual freedom possible
This is a good example of how political thinkers should be used in Edexcel essays. Instead of simply memorising "Wollstonecraft = equality", explain why reason provides the basis for equality.
Civil liberties
Wollstonecraft's formal equality argument specifically includes full civil liberties.
This connects to liberalism's wider commitment to a society in which individuals have equal value and are treated impartially and fairly.
Formal equality therefore concerns the legal and political status of the individual.
It should not be confused with equality of opportunity, which means having equal chances in life to rise and fall.
The right to pursue a career
Edexcel also specifies that Wollstonecraft believed women should be allowed to have a career.
This reinforces her wider argument that women should be treated as rational and independent people capable of making choices about their own lives.
In an examination, keep the point connected to the specification:
Because women are rational and independent beings, Wollstonecraft argues that genuine freedom requires formal equality, including full civil liberties and the ability to pursue a career.
Wollstonecraft and liberal human nature
Wollstonecraft is especially useful when a question concerns the liberal view of human nature.
The 2023 examiner report specifically advised that Wollstonecraft is best used when discussing:
the liberal view of human nature
the need for formal equality
This is important because students sometimes turn discussion of Wollstonecraft into a separate essay on feminism.
For Edexcel Liberalism, the focus should remain on how her ideas exemplify liberal principles.
Wollstonecraft and liberal democracy
Formal equality can also be relevant when considering liberal democracy.
Liberal democracy balances the will of the people with limited government and respect for civil liberties.
The 2025 examiner report noted that Wollstonecraft was used effectively by candidates when discussing the importance of formal equality in democracy.
The connection is that a liberal political system must take seriously the equal political and legal status of rational individuals.
John Stuart Mill
The two ideas specified for John Stuart Mill are:
The harm principle
Tolerance
Both concern the liberal commitment to individual freedom.
Mill's harm principle
Edexcel defines Mill's harm principle as the belief that:
individuals should be free to do anything except harm other individuals.
This creates a clear liberal presumption in favour of individual liberty.
The starting point is freedom.
Restriction requires justification because the individual should normally be able to choose how to act.
Freedom with limits
Mill's harm principle does not mean:
"People should be able to do absolutely anything."
Instead:
Individual action should normally be free
↓
but freedom has a boundary
↓
the boundary is harm to other individuals
This makes the harm principle particularly useful for understanding the liberal idea that freedom operates under the law.
Liberalism values extensive personal liberty but does not require complete absence of all rules or restrictions.
Mill and individualism
The harm principle strongly reflects the liberal principle of individualism.
Liberalism gives primacy to the individual over the group.
Mill's principle protects an individual's ability to make choices about their own life, provided those choices do not harm other individuals.
It therefore establishes both:
a sphere of individual liberty
a justified limit to that liberty
The harm principle and negative freedom
Mill's harm principle can be connected to the liberal concept of negative freedom, meaning the absence of external constraints and interference within the private sphere.
The connection is straightforward:
individual choice should normally be protected from interference
interference becomes justified where the individual's actions harm somebody else
However, avoid reducing Mill to a single label in every essay. The 2025 examiner report found that some candidates placed Mill on both sides of an artificially simple classical-versus-modern divide. Examiners rewarded more precise use of the specified idea in relation to the actual question.
Mill and the liberal state
The harm principle also helps explain why liberals are suspicious of excessive government power.
If individuals should normally be free unless they harm others, a government that interferes with harmless individual choices risks undermining liberty.
The 2023 mark scheme used Mill's harm principle to illustrate the wider liberal concern that state power can restrict individual freedom.
The principle therefore helps establish a boundary between legitimate restrictions and unnecessary interference.
Mill and tolerance
Mill's second specified idea is tolerance.
Edexcel states that Mill believed:
the popularity of a view does not necessarily make it correct.
This is an important liberal argument because it separates truth or correctness from popularity.
A view does not become correct simply because many people believe it.
What is tolerance?
The wider Edexcel glossary defines tolerance as a willingness to respect values, customs and beliefs with which a person disagrees.
Tolerance therefore requires individuals to accept the existence and expression of disagreement rather than assuming that unpopular views should automatically be suppressed.
Popularity is not the same as correctness
Mill's argument can be expressed very simply:
A majority supports an opinion
↓
does not necessarily mean
↓
the opinion is correct
This is important in a liberal society because individual judgement should not simply disappear when it conflicts with the majority.
Mill's tolerance therefore reinforces:
individual reasoning
freedom
plural views
suspicion of collective pressure over the individual
Tolerance and rationalism
Tolerance also connects to rationalism.
If individuals are rational and capable of using reason, differing ideas should not simply be rejected because they are unpopular.
Individuals should be able to consider ideas and reach judgements for themselves.
The 2020 Edexcel mark scheme linked Mill's tolerance with the liberal idea that tolerance permits mutual understanding and free debate.
Tolerance and liberal democracy
Mill's tolerance is particularly useful in essays about liberal democracy.
Democracy involves collective decision-making, but liberalism also protects the individual.
A majority may possess democratic power without necessarily possessing the correct view.
Mill therefore illustrates one reason why liberals support democracy while remaining concerned about unrestricted majority power.
This develops the tension explored in liberal democracy.
The 2025 mark scheme identifies a shared liberal concern that majority decision-making can override individual freedom if democratic power is not appropriately limited.
The relationship between the harm principle and tolerance
Mill's two specified ideas reinforce one another.
The harm principle protects individual action unless it harms somebody else.
Tolerance protects space for unpopular ideas by rejecting the assumption that popularity makes a view correct.
Together, they produce a powerful liberal position:
Individuals should have a wide sphere of freedom
↓
their actions may be restricted where they harm others
↓
their views should not simply be rejected because they are unpopular
↓
individual liberty requires both limits on harmful behaviour and tolerance of disagreement
Comparing Locke, Wollstonecraft and Mill
Although their specified ideas focus on different parts of liberalism, the three thinkers share important connections.
Thinker | Specified idea | Main liberal connection |
Locke | Social contract | Consent and legitimate political authority |
Locke | Limited government | Protection against excessive state power |
Wollstonecraft | Reason | Rational human nature and independent judgement |
Wollstonecraft | Formal equality | Equal legal and political rights |
Mill | Harm principle | Individual liberty and justified limits on freedom |
Mill | Tolerance | Respect for disagreement and protection from majority pressure |
The key exam skill is to move beyond naming the thinker.
Instead, build a chain:
Thinker's idea → liberal principle → relevance to the question
Locke and Mill: limiting power to protect freedom
Locke and Mill can both support arguments about individual liberty, but they approach it from different directions.
Locke focuses on political authority:
government is based upon a theoretical voluntary agreement
government should be limited
political authority should be based on consent from below
Mill focuses on the freedom of individuals:
individuals should normally be free to act
interference is justified when their actions harm others
unpopular views should not automatically be rejected
Both can therefore support the wider liberal concern that power must not become an unjustified restriction on individual freedom.
Wollstonecraft and Mill: rational individual judgement
Wollstonecraft and Mill can both be related to the liberal belief in individual reasoning.
Wollstonecraft argues that women are rational and independent beings capable of reason.
Mill argues that a popular view is not automatically a correct view.
Both challenge the assumption that individuals should simply accept judgements made by others.
Their ideas therefore reinforce liberal:
rationalism
individualism
independence of judgement
Locke and Wollstonecraft: consent and equality
Locke's political authority comes from consent from below.
Wollstonecraft argues that women are rational individuals entitled to formal equality.
Both ideas can therefore support a liberal society in which political authority is justified with reference to individuals rather than imposed upon people regardless of their status or judgement.
Three thinkers, one liberal framework
A useful revision structure is:
Locke: Who should control political power?
Government is legitimate through agreement and must remain limited.
Wollstonecraft: Who counts as a rational and equal individual?
Women are rational and independent and therefore require formal equality.
Mill: How far should individual freedom extend?
Individuals should be free unless they harm others, while unpopular opinions should be tolerated.
Together:
a strong illustration of liberal commitments to individualism, rationalism, equality and freedom
Linking the thinkers to classical and modern liberalism
Political Ideas questions are primarily about the core principles and divisions within liberalism, not about comparing biographies.
The thinkers should therefore be used to exemplify those principles.
Locke
Particularly useful for:
social contract
consent
limited government
liberal concerns about state power
Wollstonecraft
Particularly useful for:
rational human nature
formal equality
civil liberties
Mill
Particularly useful for:
individual freedom
the limits of freedom
tolerance
liberal concerns about majority or state restrictions
The next lesson, modern liberal thinkers, adds Rawls's ideas about justice and the veil of ignorance and Friedan's ideas about equality and opportunity.
Using thinkers correctly in a 24-mark question
The Edexcel specification says that Core Political Ideas questions focus on the core principles and divisions but require students to use the key ideas of thinkers in their answers.
This distinction matters.
A strong paragraph might follow this structure:
State the liberal principle or division.
Explain it accurately.
Use a specified thinker to exemplify it.
Compare it with another liberal perspective.
Evaluate how far this supports the question.
For example:
Principle:Â Liberals fear excessive state power.
Thinker:Â Locke supports limited government based on consent from below.
Analysis:Â This demonstrates that political authority is accepted only when constrained, because unlimited power can conflict with individual freedom.
Comparison:Â Modern liberals accept a larger enabling state, so liberals disagree over the degree of limitation required.
Evaluation: Liberalism is therefore united in opposing unlimited government but divided over how extensive legitimate government may become.
That uses the thinker to advance an ideological argument.
The definitions reflect the liberal terminology and specified thinker content in the Edexcel specification.
Hints from the Examiner Reports đź’ˇ
Examiner hint:Â Do not turn a Political Ideas answer into a series of thinker biographies.
The specification itself states that these thinkers should be studied through their specified key ideas, not detailed biographical information. Examiner feedback has repeatedly reinforced this point. The 2019 report advised that questions should be answered primarily through the ideological strands and then exemplified by thinkers, rather than structured around individual thinkers.
For example, begin a paragraph with liberal attitudes towards the state, then use Locke. Do not begin by writing everything you remember about Locke.
Examiner hint:Â Use Wollstonecraft where she genuinely fits the argument.
The 2023 examiner report specifically warned against using Wollstonecraft in a way that turns a liberalism essay into a feminism essay. It advised that she is particularly useful for explaining liberal human nature and formal equality.
A strong connection is:
rationalism → Wollstonecraft's reason → formal equality
Examiner hint:Â Do not force every thinker into every essay.
The 2023 report found that some students seemed determined to include all five liberal thinkers regardless of relevance. Examiners instead recommended selecting appropriate and relevant thinkers and using them to develop the argument.
Three thinkers used accurately are far more useful than five thinkers awkwardly inserted into unrelated paragraphs.
Examiner hint:Â Avoid oversimplifying Mill.
In the 2025 liberal democracy question, Mill was sometimes placed on opposite sides of an artificially sharp classical-versus-modern division. Locke was generally used more successfully because students accurately connected him to social contract and limited government.
Use Mill's specified ideas first: harm principle and tolerance. Then explain how those ideas relate to the question.
Examiner hint:Â Agreement and disagreement must both be analysed in Political Ideas questions.
The 2023 report found that many candidates discussed only disagreement between ideological strands and therefore lacked balance. It also identified AO3 evaluation as the weakest part of many answers.
Even when using thinkers associated strongly with a particular argument, ask:
Where do liberals agree, and where do their interpretations diverge?
Examiner hint:Â Make your evaluation answer "how much?"
The 2025 report praised stronger Political Ideas answers where the judgement recognised the "to what extent?"Â demand, discussion was thematic, thinkers supported analysis and both agreement and disagreement were considered. It also found AO3 strongest when evaluation was evidenced and sustained throughout the essay.
Do not simply conclude "there are arguments on both sides". Decide which side is stronger and by how much.
Common Mistakes ⚠️
Mistake: Learning detailed biographies instead of the specified ideas
Why this is incorrect: Edexcel explicitly says content area 3 should focus on the listed key ideas rather than detailed biographical information.
How to improve:
Learn each thinker as a two-idea pair:
Locke:Â social contract + limited government
Wollstonecraft:Â reason + formal equality
Mill:Â harm principle + tolerance
Then practise connecting each idea to wider liberalism.
Mistake: Saying Locke opposes government
Why this is incorrect: Locke's social contract accepts the existence of society, state and government through theoretical voluntary agreement. His argument is for limited, consent-based government, not the absence of government.
How to improve: Use the contrast:
government is necessary, but government should be limited and based on consent from below.
Mistake: Explaining social contract without mentioning consent
Why this is incorrect: The central liberal feature of Locke's position is that political authority rests on theoretical voluntary agreement, and his limited government is based on consent from below.
How to improve: Link the ideas every time:
social contract → agreement → consent → limited government
Mistake: Treating Wollstonecraft's reason and equality as unrelated ideas
Why this is incorrect: Her argument about equality follows from her view of women as rational and independent beings.
How to improve: Build the chain:
women possess reason → women are independent individuals → women require full civil liberties → formal equality
Mistake: Turning Wollstonecraft into an essay on feminism
Why this is incorrect: For Edexcel Liberalism, Wollstonecraft is included to exemplify liberal ideas, particularly rational human nature and formal equality. Examiner feedback explicitly warns against allowing her use to turn a Liberalism answer into a Feminism answer.
How to improve: Keep every reference tied to the liberal principle in the question.
Mistake: Saying Mill believes in unlimited freedom
Why this is incorrect: Mill's harm principle places a clear limit on liberty: individuals should be free except where they harm other individuals.
How to improve: Use both halves of the principle:
presumption of liberty + harm as the limit
Mistake: Saying a majority opinion must be correct
Why this is incorrect: Mill's specified idea of tolerance states precisely the opposite: the popularity of a view does not necessarily make it correct.
How to improve: Use Mill when analysing why liberalism protects individual judgement even within a democracy.
Exam-Style Questions ✍️
Question 1
Define social contract. (1 mark)
reveal mark scheme and indicative content
Answer:
The idea that the state or society is established through agreement from the people, who respect laws that serve to protect them.
Question 2
State Mill's harm principle. (1 mark)
reveal mark scheme and indicative content
Answer:
Individuals should be free to do anything except harm other individuals.
Question 3
Explain how Locke's social contract theory supports limited government. (4 marks)
reveal mark scheme and indicative content
Indicative answer:
Locke argues that society, the state and government are based on a theoretical voluntary agreement. Government is therefore based on the consent of those governed rather than possessing unlimited authority. Locke consequently argues that government should be limited and based on consent from below.
Question 4
Explain the relationship between Wollstonecraft's ideas of reason and formal equality. (4 marks)
reveal mark scheme and indicative content
Indicative answer:
Wollstonecraft argues that women are rational and independent beings capable of reason. If women possess the same rational capacity expected of individuals within liberalism, there is no justification for denying them equal legal status. She therefore argues that women should enjoy full civil liberties and be allowed to pursue careers, demonstrating formal equality.
Question 5
Consider the following situation:
A government argues that women should be prevented from entering particular careers because they are not capable of making sufficiently rational decisions for themselves.
Using Wollstonecraft's specified ideas, explain the liberal criticism of this argument. (6 marks)
reveal mark scheme and indicative content
Indicative answer:
Wollstonecraft would reject the assumption because she argues that women are rational and independent beings capable of reason. Preventing women from pursuing careers on this basis therefore denies their capacity for independent judgement. Her principle of formal equality also holds that freedom requires women to possess full civil liberties and be allowed to have a career. The restriction conflicts with both her view of rational human nature and her demand for equal status.
Question 6
Consider the following situation:
A large majority supports banning the expression of an unpopular political opinion. Supporters of the ban argue that the view must be wrong because most citizens reject it. There is no suggestion that expressing the opinion harms another individual.
Using Mill's specified ideas, analyse the liberal response to this proposal. (6 marks)
reveal mark scheme and indicative content
Indicative answer:
Mill's principle of tolerance challenges the argument that popularity determines correctness. The fact that most people reject the opinion does not necessarily make it incorrect. His harm principle also establishes a presumption in favour of individual liberty unless an individual's actions harm others. As no harm is identified in the scenario, Mill's ideas provide a strong liberal argument against restricting the expression simply because it is unpopular.
Question 7
Analyse how Locke and Mill both attempt to protect individual liberty while accepting that freedom can have limits. (8 marks)
reveal mark scheme and indicative content
Indicative mark scheme:
Strong answers should explain that:
Locke accepts political authority through social contract theory
government therefore has a legitimate role
Locke nevertheless insists government must be limited and based on consent from below
this protects the individual from unlimited state authority
Mill establishes a strong presumption in favour of individual freedom
Mill nevertheless accepts a limit where actions harm other individuals
both therefore reject completely unlimited power
Locke focuses primarily on limits to political authority
Mill's harm principle focuses on the boundary of individual liberty
both illustrate the liberal attempt to reconcile freedom with necessary restrictions
Higher-level responses should identify the connection between the thinkers rather than presenting two separate descriptions.
Question 8
To what extent do liberals agree that individual freedom depends upon limiting the power exercised over individuals?
You must use appropriate thinkers you have studied to support your answer and consider both sides in a balanced way. (24 marks)
reveal mark scheme and indicative content
Indicative mark scheme
A strong answer should organise discussion around the liberal principles and divisions, using thinkers as supporting evidence.
Areas of agreement
Liberals broadly agree that:
the individual has primacy over collective groups
individual liberty must be protected
political authority should not become unlimited
freedom exists under the law rather than requiring complete absence of rules
rational individuals should be capable of directing their own lives
individuals should possess equal value and civil liberties
Locke can support agreement because:
political authority derives from a theoretical voluntary agreement
government should be limited
government should be based on consent from below
Wollstonecraft can support agreement because:
individuals should be recognised as rational and independent
women therefore require formal equality and full civil liberties
Mill can support agreement because:
individual actions should normally remain free
restrictions require the presence of harm to another person
majority popularity does not make an opinion correct
Areas of disagreement
The main divisions arise over how far power must be restricted.
Classical and modern liberals agree that unlimited government threatens liberty, but they differ over the legitimate size and purpose of the state.
Classical liberalism places greater emphasis on:
egoistical individualism
negative freedom
the minimal state
Modern liberalism places greater emphasis on:
developmental individualism
positive freedom
the enabling state
The central disagreement is therefore not whether individuals should be free, but whether freedom is best achieved primarily by restricting external power or whether some exercise of state power can enable individuals to become genuinely free.
This develops the division examined in classical and modern liberalism.
AO2 analysis
A strong response should integrate thinkers into comparisons.
For example:
Locke's insistence on consent and limited government shows a strong liberal suspicion of political authority when it is not constrained. Mill similarly places a boundary around interference with individual behaviour through the harm principle. However, modern liberals do not conclude that all additional state intervention reduces freedom. Their support for an enabling state shows that political power may sometimes be regarded as a means of increasing individual liberty.
AO3 evaluation
A strong judgement could argue that liberalism is highly united in opposing unlimited power over the individual.
Locke, Wollstonecraft and Mill all provide different reasons for protecting individual autonomy, rational judgement, legal equality or liberty.
However, liberals are significantly divided over how much limitation is necessary. Classical liberals place stronger emphasis on protecting the individual from interference, while modern liberals accept a larger state where it promotes genuine individual development.
A reasoned overall conclusion could therefore be:
Liberals agree more strongly about the need to protect individuals from unlimited or unjustified power than they do about the precise size and scope of legitimate power. The fundamental principle of individual liberty unites liberalism, while disagreement concerns the means by which that liberty is best secured.
For Edexcel's 24-mark Core Political Ideas questions, AO1, AO2 and AO3 each carry 8 marks. The specification requires students to use the specified thinkers to support answers based on the core principles and divisions of the ideology, while examiner feedback stresses accurate thinker use, balanced consideration of agreement and disagreement, and sustained judgement throughout.
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