Culturalism, racialism and internationalism | Edexcel A-Level Politics
Updated: 1 day ago
For Specification 9PL0
Edexcel A-Level Politics | Free Revision Notes
Estimated study time:Â 55-65 minutes
Nationalists agree that the nation matters, but they can explain national identity in very different ways. This Culturalism, racialism and internationalism A-Level Politics revision page examines culturalism, the much narrower idea of racialism, and the complicated relationship between nationalism and internationalism. These ideas build directly on your understanding of national identity and self-government [Nations, self-determination and the nation-state] and prepare you to compare the inclusive, exclusive, progressive and regressive features of the main nationalist traditions.
Learning Objectives 🎯
By the end of this revision page, you should be able to:
Define culturalism, racialism, internationalism and ethnicity.
Explain how cultural nationalism bases national identity on shared cultural values.
Analyse why some forms of nationalism are grounded in mystical and emotional attachments.
Explain racialism as a view held by only a very small group of nationalists.
Compare cultural and biological understandings of national identity.
Evaluate the different relationships between nationalism, liberal internationalism and socialist internationalism.
Revision Notes đź“š
Culturalism, racialism and internationalism A-Level Politics revision: the key debate
The Edexcel specification identifies culturalism, racialism and internationalism as three core ideas that reveal important divisions within nationalism.
They address three different questions:
Idea | Central question |
Culturalism | Is national identity based on a shared culture and way of life? |
Racialism | Is nationhood determined purely by biological factors? |
Internationalism | Can national identity coexist with cooperation and solidarity across national boundaries? |
These debates develop the question considered in different understandings of the nation [Nations, self-determination and the nation-state].
Although all nationalists place great importance on the nation, they disagree considerably about what binds a nation together and about how nations should relate to one another.
What is culturalism?
Culturalism is the idea that nationalism is based on shared cultural and societal values.
For cultural nationalists, people do not simply form a nation because they occupy the same territory or live under the same government. Their sense of belonging develops through a shared cultural inheritance.
This may involve shared:
language
traditions
religion
history
social practices
national ways of life
Edexcel specifically requires students to understand that some cultural forms of nationalism are grounded in mystical and emotional ties.
This gives cultural nationalism a different character from a purely civic understanding of national identity.
Culture and national identity
Cultural nationalism treats the nation as something that develops through the experiences of its people.
Individuals feel attached to one another because they share a common cultural environment. National identity may therefore feel inherited and emotionally significant rather than simply being the result of a rational political choice.
Johann Gottfried von Herder illustrates this cultural understanding.
His specification ideas include:
every nation possesses its own unique cultural character
the Volk, or people, forms the root of national culture
each nation possesses a distinctive Volksgeist, or national spirit
You will study these ideas in greater detail in Herder's cultural nationalism [Rousseau, Herder and Mazzini].
Culturalism and the Volk
The term Volk refers to the people who form the basis of the nation's distinctive culture.
Herder's concept of Volksgeist means the distinctive "spirit" or identity of a nation based on its culture.
This creates an organic understanding of nationhood:
people → shared culture → distinctive national identity
The nation is therefore understood as more than a legal arrangement. It is a community shaped by a particular cultural experience.
This approach can make national identity powerful because culture provides a source of belonging and continuity.
However, it can also raise an important question:
If membership of the nation depends upon possessing or adopting a particular culture, how easy is it for somebody without that cultural background to become part of the nation?
This is where culturalism connects to the distinction between inclusive nationalism and exclusive nationalism.
Cultural nationalism and exclusivity
The Edexcel glossary defines exclusive nationalism as nationalism in which joining the nation takes time because membership depends on shared history and language.
By contrast, inclusive nationalism allows people to join the nation more straightforwardly because membership does not depend upon shared previous experiences.
Cultural nationalism can therefore be more exclusive than civic nationalism.
A person might need to:
learn the language
adopt cultural practices
understand shared traditions
become integrated into an established national way of life
This does not make cultural nationalism the same thing as racialism.
That distinction is extremely important.
Culturalism compared with civic nationalism
Civic nationalism bases the legitimacy of the nation-state on the active participation of citizens and a shared vision of citizens as equals.
It therefore defines belonging primarily through political participation and shared values rather than inherited cultural experience.
Civic nationalism | Cultural nationalism |
Focuses on active citizenship | Focuses on shared culture |
Membership is comparatively open | Membership may take longer |
Emphasises shared political values | Emphasises history, language and cultural inheritance |
More rational in character | Can be more emotional or mystical |
Associated with inclusive nationalism | Can be associated with more exclusive nationalism |
Jean-Jacques Rousseau's civic nationalism provides the clearest contrast with Herder's cultural nationalism.
Rousseau argues that the state's legitimacy comes from the active participation of its citizens. Herder instead stresses the distinctive culture and national character of the Volk.
đź’ˇ Exam focus:Â This is an excellent comparison because it explains a fundamental disagreement about what actually makes somebody part of a nation.
The emotional and mystical side of nationalism
The specification requires you to recognise that culturalism can be connected to mystical and emotional ties.
This means national membership may be experienced as something deeper than a rational political agreement.
People may feel that:
their identity is rooted in their nation's culture
their national community links present generations with the past
their culture makes their nation distinctive from other nations
protecting that culture is necessary to preserve national identity
This helps explain why conservative nationalism may emphasise national cohesion and the protection of a distinctive way of life.
The relationship becomes even clearer in the main nationalist traditions [Liberal, conservative, anti/post-colonial and expansionist nationalism].
Culturalism and the darker side of nationalism
The specification also explicitly requires students to reflect upon the darker side of nationalism when studying culturalism.
The potential problem appears when attachment to one's own culture becomes increasingly exclusive.
A movement from cultural attachment towards exclusion can be represented as:
shared culture → restricted membership → exclusion of outsiders
Expansionist nationalism can move still further by presenting its own nation as unique or superior.
The 2024 mark scheme distinguishes cultural and increasingly exclusive approaches clearly:
conservative nationalism may defend language, religion, traditions or a national way of life
expansionist nationalism may emphasise a unique nation and common ancestry
racialism represents the most exclusive position because it defines nationhood purely in biological terms
This distinction matters because cultural nationalism and racialism are not interchangeable concepts.
What is ethnicity?
Ethnicity is a sense of belonging to a social group sharing a distinctive culture, religion, language or similar features.
Ethnicity is relevant because nationalist identity can be linked to shared cultural characteristics.
However, it should not be confused with racialism.
Ethnicity | Racialism |
Concerns belonging to a cultural group | Claims humanity can be divided into separate races possessing different natures |
May involve language, culture or religion | Determines nationhood purely through biological factors |
Cultural and social | Biological |
Can help explain cultural identity | Represents a view held by only a very small group of nationalists |
Keeping these concepts separate will make your examination answers much more precise.
What is racialism?
Racialism is the belief that humankind can be meaningfully divided into separate "races", with each possessing different natures.
Within nationalism, the specification uses the term specifically for the position held by a very small group of nationalists who believe that nationhood is determined purely by biological factors.
The word purely is crucial.
Under racialism:
biological identity → determines national membership
This makes racialism significantly more restrictive than cultural nationalism.
Racialism and national membership
If national identity is determined purely by biology, joining the nation through political commitment or cultural assimilation becomes impossible.
A civic nationalist might argue:
You can become part of the nation by participating in its political community.
A cultural nationalist might argue:
You can become part of the nation, but integration into its culture takes time.
A racialist position instead bases membership on biological identity.
This makes racialism the most strongly exclusive position recognised within the nationalism specification.
The 2024 mark scheme explicitly identifies racialism as the most exclusive approach because it defines the nation purely in terms of race, in contrast to liberal civic nationalism.
Racialism is a minority position within nationalism
⚠️ A particularly important qualification is that racialism is not a belief shared by nationalists generally.
The specification states explicitly that it is held by a very small group of nationalists.
You should therefore avoid sentences such as:
"Nationalism believes nations are based on race."
This wrongly presents an extreme minority position as a general nationalist principle.
A much stronger statement would be:
"While some nationalism can become highly exclusive, racialism represents the position of only a very small group of nationalists who define nationhood purely through biological factors."
This distinction is particularly useful when comparing inclusive and exclusive forms of nationalism [Liberal, conservative, anti/post-colonial and expansionist nationalism].
Racialism and expansionist nationalism
The specification does not say that all expansionist nationalists are racialists.
However, the assessment material links some highly exclusive forms of expansionist nationalism with racialism.
Expansionist nationalism:
rejects the right of all nations to self-determination
is usually associated with chauvinism
may see one nation as superior to others
can therefore develop a highly exclusive understanding of national identity
The 2021 mark scheme notes that some variants of expansionist nationalism are based on racialism. It also links racialism with competition between states and an exclusive understanding of the nation.
The word some matters.
Do not turn a possible connection into a universal rule.
Culturalism and racialism compared
Culturalism | Racialism |
Nationhood is based on shared cultural values | Nationhood is determined purely by biological factors |
May involve language, traditions and history | Based on the idea of separate races with different natures |
Membership may be acquired over time | Membership cannot simply be acquired through political or cultural integration |
Can be relatively exclusive | Extremely exclusive |
Important within some nationalist traditions | Held by only a very small group of nationalists |
The central distinction is therefore:
culture is acquired and shared socially; racialism defines nationhood biologically.
What is internationalism?
Internationalism is the belief that the world should unite across boundaries to advance common interests in society.
At first this appears to conflict with nationalism.
Nationalism emphasises the nation.
Internationalism looks across national boundaries.
However, Edexcel specifically requires you to understand that the relationship is more complicated:
some forms of nationalism also possess an internationalist perspective
some internationalists reject nationalism
Therefore, nationalism and internationalism are neither completely compatible nor completely opposed.
How nationalism and internationalism can be compatible
Nationalists do not necessarily believe that nations should isolate themselves.
A nationalist can believe that:
nations should possess their own political identity
nations should govern themselves
independent nations can cooperate with one another
This is particularly important within liberal nationalism.
Liberal nationalism seeks a world of autonomous nation-states.
These states remain independent but can cooperate internationally.
This leads to liberal internationalism.
Liberal internationalism
Liberal internationalism is the idea that sovereign nations should cooperate and develop a degree of interdependency in order to avoid international conflict.
There is no requirement here to abolish nation-states.
Instead:
independent nation-states + cooperation + interdependency → greater international peace
This allows liberal nationalism and internationalism to coexist.
The nation remains politically significant, but cooperation between nations can reduce conflict.
This is why liberal nationalism can combine:
national self-determination
sovereign nation-states
international cooperation
The Edexcel assessment materials consequently recognise liberal internationalism as a way of looking beyond individual nations while still recognising national identities.
Internationalism and a world of nation-states
For liberal nationalists, the nation-state can form the building block of international order.
The argument is:
Each nation should possess self-determination.
Independent nation-states should respect one another's sovereignty.
Sovereign states can cooperate.
Cooperation and interdependence can reduce international conflict.
This makes nationalism potentially compatible with international peace rather than automatically producing competition.
Giuseppe Mazzini's specification idea that human freedom rests on the creation of one's own nation-state connects strongly with this belief in national self-government.
You will explore Mazzini's contribution in nationalist thinkers [Rousseau, Herder and Mazzini].
Socialist internationalism
Socialist internationalism provides a very different relationship between nationalism and internationalism.
The specification defines socialist internationalism as the belief that class solidarity is more powerful and politically significant than national identity.
For socialist internationalists, people across different countries may share common interests because they belong to the same social class.
The key contrast is therefore:
Nationalism:Â national identity is politically central.
Socialist internationalism:Â class identity can be more politically significant than national identity.
This means socialist internationalism can challenge nationalism rather than complement it.
Liberal and socialist internationalism compared
Liberal internationalism | Socialist internationalism |
Accepts sovereign nation-states | Gives priority to class solidarity |
Nations cooperate across boundaries | People unite across national boundaries through shared class interests |
National identity remains politically important | Class identity is more politically significant than national identity |
Can complement liberal nationalism | Can reject nationalism's emphasis on the nation |
This is one of the clearest examples of why internationalism does not have one relationship with nationalism.
Some internationalism works with national identity.
Other internationalism challenges the political importance of national identity itself.
Nationalism and internationalism: agreement and disagreement
The relationship can be summarised in three positions.
1. Nationalism can support international cooperation
Liberal nationalism accepts autonomous nation-states while also supporting cooperation between them.
National sovereignty and internationalism can therefore coexist.
2. Some nationalist ideas cross national boundaries
National identity does not always have to be confined neatly within individual state boundaries.
Marcus Garvey's Pan-Africanism, for example, holds that African people throughout the world constitute one people and should put aside cultural and ethnic differences.
This introduces a form of solidarity extending across individual state boundaries.
You will examine Garvey fully in contrasting nationalist identities [Maurras and Garvey].
3. Some internationalism rejects nationalism
Socialist internationalism argues that class solidarity is more important than national identity.
This directly challenges the nationalist belief that the nation should be the primary political community.
Nationalism can also oppose an internationalist outlook
Not every form of nationalism seeks peaceful cooperation among equal nations.
Expansionist nationalism rejects the right of all nations to self-determination and is usually linked to chauvinism.
Rather than imagining equal states cooperating, expansionist nationalism can emphasise:
national superiority
competition
military strength
domination
Charles Maurras's integral nationalism and militarism illustrate this highly emotional approach.
His specification ideas are explored fully in Maurras and Garvey [Maurras and Garvey].
This creates a sharp contrast:
Internationalist liberal nationalism | Expansionist nationalism |
Nations coexist | Nations compete |
Sovereignty should be respected | The equal sovereignty of all nations is rejected |
Cooperation can reduce conflict | Militarism may be emphasised |
Seeks peaceful international order | May be associated with domination |
The key relationships between the three ideas
Culturalism, racialism and internationalism should not be revised as three unrelated definitions.
Together they expose major disagreements over the nature and boundaries of national identity.
Culturalism asks:
What do members of the nation share?
Answer: a common culture and societal values.
Racialism asks:
Can national identity be determined entirely by biology?
For a very small group of nationalists, yes.
Internationalism asks:
Does commitment to the nation prevent cooperation or solidarity across national boundaries?
The nationalist answer varies considerably.
Liberal nationalism demonstrates that national self-government and international cooperation can coexist.
Socialist internationalism instead challenges nationalism by placing class solidarity above national identity.
Expansionist nationalism moves in the opposite direction, emphasising national competition and denying equal self-determination to all nations.
Overall comparison
Issue | More inclusive position | More exclusive position |
Basis of belonging | Civic values and participation | Shared culture, history or language |
Cultural identity | Cultural diversity may be compatible with nationhood | Membership may depend on adopting a national culture |
Racialism | Rejected as the basis of national membership | A very small minority determines membership biologically |
International relations | Cooperation between autonomous states | Competition and possible domination |
International identity | Liberal internationalism retains national identity | Socialist internationalism may reject nationalism by prioritising class |
Political direction | Liberal and anti/post-colonial nationalism can be progressive | Conservative and expansionist nationalism can be more regressive or exclusive |
The central conclusion is that nationalism contains substantial internal disagreement.
Nationalists agree on the importance of national identity, but they can disagree profoundly over:
how that identity is formed
how easy it is to join the nation
whether culture or biology determines membership
whether nations should cooperate
whether identity above or beyond the nation can be politically more significant
These disagreements provide the foundation for studying the four major nationalist traditions [Liberal, conservative, anti/post-colonial and expansionist nationalism].
Key Words 🔑
Key word | Student-friendly definition | How it may be used in an exam |
Culturalism | The belief that nationalism is based on shared cultural and societal values. | Explain why some nationalists understand the nation through language, culture, traditions and emotional ties. |
Racialism | The view, held by a very small group of nationalists, that nationhood is determined purely by biological factors. | Contrast highly exclusive nationalism with civic and cultural definitions of the nation. |
Internationalism | The belief that people should unite across national boundaries to advance common interests. | Analyse whether nationalism is compatible with cooperation or solidarity beyond the nation. |
Liberal internationalism | The belief that sovereign nations should cooperate and become partly interdependent to reduce international conflict. | Show how nationalism and international cooperation can be compatible. |
Socialist internationalism | The belief that class solidarity is politically more significant than national identity. | Explain why some internationalists reject nationalism and prioritise identities across national boundaries. |
Hints from the Examiner Reports đź’ˇ
The examiner reports and assessment materials provide particularly useful guidance for questions involving cultural identity, inclusivity and internationalism.
Examiner hint:Â Build your essay around comparisons, not four separate descriptions of the nationalist strands. In 2023, stronger responses grouped strands together and explored agreement and disagreement, while weaker responses placed the strands side by side without enough comparative analysis.
Examiner hint:Â Use the specification's political vocabulary precisely. The 2024 examiner feedback praised answers that used terms from the nationalism topic effectively and integrated thinkers into the argument rather than treating them separately.
Examiner hint: Keep a clear line of argument throughout. The 2024 feedback emphasised deciding the argument before writing and maintaining it as a "golden thread" across the essay.
Examiner hint: For questions about inclusivity, distinguish carefully between civic, cultural and racial bases of national identity. The 2024 mark scheme specifically treats racialism as the most exclusive position because it defines nationhood purely in terms of race.
Examiner hint: Do not simply identify a thinker with a strand. Use the thinker's actual idea to demonstrate the agreement or disagreement. Herder's cultural nationalism, Rousseau's civic nationalism and Maurras's integral nationalism are useful because they reveal fundamentally different understandings of national identity.
Examiner hint:Â Internationalism can form a genuine line of comparison. Earlier examiner feedback noted that successful nationalism answers could take an internationalist approach while sustaining an argument and using appropriate thinkers.
Examiner hint:Â Do not neglect "extent". Recent examiner feedback stresses that the strongest non-core political ideas essays do more than identify agreement and disagreement. They judge how significant those agreements and disagreements actually are.
Common Mistakes ⚠️
Mistake: Treating culturalism and racialism as the same idea
Why this is incorrect: Culturalism bases national identity on shared societal and cultural values. Racialism determines nationhood purely through biological factors.
How to improve: Remember the contrast:
culture = shared and acquired socially
racialism = purely biological determination
Mistake: Saying racialism is a general feature of nationalism
Why this is incorrect: The specification explicitly states that racialism is a view held by a very small group of nationalists.
How to improve: Always qualify the point. Write "a very small minority of nationalists" rather than "nationalists believe".
Mistake: Assuming cultural nationalism automatically means racial nationalism
Why this is incorrect: A belief that language, traditions or cultural experience shape national identity is different from believing that biology alone determines membership.
How to improve: Treat civic, cultural and racial definitions as distinct positions on a spectrum of inclusivity.
Mistake: Confusing ethnicity with racialism
Why this is incorrect: Ethnicity concerns identification with a group sharing culture, religion, language or similar characteristics. Racialism determines national membership purely through biology.
How to improve: Use ethnicity when discussing cultural belonging and reserve racialism for the specific biological definition given by Edexcel.
Mistake: Saying internationalism simply rejects nationalism
Why this is incorrect: Some internationalists reject nationalism, but other forms of nationalism have an internationalist perspective. Liberal internationalism allows sovereign nation-states to cooperate.
How to improve: Always distinguish liberal internationalism from socialist internationalism.
Mistake: Saying liberal internationalism abolishes national sovereignty
Why this is incorrect: The specification defines liberal internationalism in terms of sovereign nations cooperating and creating interdependency to avoid conflict.
How to improve: Use the formula:
sovereignty + cooperation + interdependency
Mistake: Describing internationalism without comparing it with nationalism
Why this is incorrect: The important issue is their relationship, not simply separate definitions.
How to improve: Ask whether each form of internationalism preserves, crosses or challenges national identity.
Exam-Style Questions ✍️
Question 1
Define culturalism in nationalism. (2 marks)
Answer:
Culturalism is the belief that nationalism is based upon shared cultural and societal values.
Award credit for:
reference to shared culture or societal values
connection to national identity or nationalism
Question 2
Explain one difference between culturalism and racialism. (4 marks)
Indicative answer:
Culturalism bases national identity on shared cultural values, which may include language, traditions and historical experiences. Racialism instead believes that nationhood is determined purely by biological factors. Therefore, cultural nationalism can allow someone to become integrated into the nation over time, whereas racialism represents a much more restrictive understanding of national membership.
Question 3
Explain why racialism represents a highly exclusive form of nationalism. (6 marks)
Indicative mark scheme:
Credit should include:
racialism determines nationhood purely through biological factors
membership therefore cannot simply be gained through political participation
membership cannot simply be achieved by adopting a culture
this produces a much narrower definition of who belongs to the nation
racialism is held by only a very small group of nationalists
Higher marks require clear development of the relationship between biological determination and exclusivity.
Question 4
Consider the following two statements:
Statement A:
"A nation depends upon its distinctive language, traditions and inherited cultural character."
Statement B:
"A political community should be based upon citizens who actively participate and accept a common set of political values."
Analyse the different understandings of nationalism represented by the two statements. (8 marks)
Indicative mark scheme:
Statement A represents:
cultural nationalism
culturalism
an emotional or organic understanding of national identity
greater emphasis on inherited culture
Statement B represents:
civic nationalism
active citizenship
shared political values
a more inclusive understanding of membership
Strong analysis will compare the basis of membership, rather than simply describe each statement separately.
Question 5
Explain two ways in which nationalism can be compatible with internationalism. (8 marks)
Indicative mark scheme:
Possible points include:
Liberal internationalism
accepts sovereign nation-states
supports cooperation between them
encourages interdependency to avoid conflict
therefore retains national identity while looking beyond national boundaries
Nationalist solidarity across boundaries
some forms of nationalism recognise solidarity extending across existing state boundaries
Garvey's Pan-Africanism sees African people throughout the world as one people
national or collective identity can therefore connect people living in different states
Credit developed explanations demonstrating that nationalism and internationalism are not necessarily opposites.
Question 6
Analyse the differences between liberal internationalism and socialist internationalism. (8 marks)
Indicative answer:
Liberal internationalism continues to recognise sovereign nation-states as politically significant. It argues that these states should cooperate and develop interdependence to reduce conflict. Socialist internationalism places less importance on national identity because it argues that class solidarity across different nations is more politically significant. Liberal internationalism can therefore complement nationalism, whereas socialist internationalism can challenge nationalism's claim that the nation should be the primary political community.
Question 7
To what extent does nationalism have an inclusive understanding of national identity? (24 marks)
You must use appropriate nationalist thinkers to support your answer and consider differing views in a balanced way.
Indicative content
Arguments that nationalism can be inclusive:
Civic nationalism bases membership on active citizenship and shared political values.
Rousseau's civic nationalism provides an inclusive understanding of the political community.
Liberal nationalism is more inclusive because membership is not restricted by shared previous cultural experiences.
Liberal and anti/post-colonial nationalism do not require culture or race to define membership of the nation-state.
Liberal internationalism allows national identity to coexist with cooperation across national boundaries.
Garvey's Pan-Africanism creates solidarity across existing national boundaries and cultural differences.
Arguments that nationalism can be exclusive:
Cultural nationalism can make membership dependent on adopting a common language, traditions and way of life.
Herder's cultural nationalism places importance on a distinctive national culture and Volksgeist.
Conservative nationalism can therefore make entry into the national community slower and more demanding.
Expansionist nationalism can present its nation as distinctive or superior to others.
Maurras's integral nationalism represents a highly emotional and exclusive nationalism.
Racialism is the most exclusive position because a very small group of nationalists determines nationhood purely through biological factors.
Assessment guidance
The 24 marks are divided equally between:
AO1, 8 marks:Â knowledge and understanding
AO2, 8 marks:Â comparative analysis and logical connections
AO3, 8 marks:Â evaluation and substantiated judgement
A strong answer should compare strands within each theme rather than describing each strand separately.
For example:
Paragraph 1:Â civic values versus cultural identity
Paragraph 2:Â openness to membership versus racialism
Paragraph 3:Â international cooperation versus expansionist exclusivity
A justified overall conclusion might argue that nationalism cannot be labelled simply inclusive or exclusive. Liberal and anti/post-colonial forms can be strongly inclusive, whereas cultural nationalism creates greater barriers to membership and racialism represents an extreme minority position. The degree of inclusivity therefore depends fundamentally upon how each strand defines the nation.
Question 8
To what extent are nationalism and internationalism compatible? (24 marks)
You must use appropriate nationalist thinkers to support your answer and consider differing views in a balanced way.
Indicative content
Arguments that they are compatible:
Liberal internationalism accepts sovereign nations.
Sovereign nation-states can cooperate and develop interdependency to avoid conflict.
Liberal nationalism seeks a world of autonomous nation-states rather than isolated states.
National self-determination can coexist with mutual respect between nations.
Mazzini's understanding of human freedom through nationhood supports the importance of self-governing nations.
Some nationalist identities can create solidarity across state boundaries, as shown by Garvey's Pan-Africanism.
Arguments that they are incompatible:
Nationalism places national identity at the centre of political life.
Socialist internationalism instead argues that class solidarity is more politically important than national identity.
International identities may therefore compete with national identity.
Expansionist nationalism does not support a cooperative world of equal sovereign nations.
Expansionist nationalism rejects universal self-determination.
Maurras's integral nationalism and militarism illustrate a more competitive and exclusive nationalist outlook.
Assessment guidance
For AO1, define both nationalism and internationalism accurately and distinguish liberal from socialist internationalism.
For AO2, make direct comparisons. For example:
Liberal internationalism retains the nation → socialist internationalism challenges its importance.
For AO3, judge the extent of compatibility. Do not conclude simply that "some agree and some disagree".
A strong overall judgement might argue that internationalism is compatible with nationalism when international cooperation preserves sovereign national communities, as in liberal internationalism. The tension becomes much greater where internationalism replaces national identity with another source of solidarity, such as class, or where expansionist nationalism rejects equal cooperation between nations.
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