Nations, self-determination and the nation-state | Edexcel A-Level Politics
Updated: 2 days ago
For Specification 9PL0
Edexcel A-Level Politics | Free Revision Notes
Estimated study time:Â 50-60 minutes
Nationalism places the nation at the centre of political life, but nationalists do not always agree about what makes a nation or what political consequences should follow from nationhood. This Nations, self-determination and the nation-state A-Level Politics revision page examines different definitions of the nation, the principle of national self-determination, and why the nation-state attracts widespread, but not universal, nationalist support. These foundations prepare you for later comparisons between different forms of nationalism [Liberal, conservative, anti/post-colonial and expansionist nationalism].
Learning Objectives 🎯
By the end of this revision page, you should be able to:
Define the nation, self-determination and the nation-state.
Explain why there are different nationalist understandings of what constitutes a nation.
Explain why nationalists regard nations as genuine political communities capable of governing themselves.
Analyse the relationship between nationhood, self-determination and statehood.
Compare nationalist support for and reservations about the nation-state.
Evaluate the extent of agreement within nationalism about nations, self-determination and nation-states.
Revision Notes đź“š
Nations, self-determination and the nation-state A-Level Politics revision: the core ideas
The Edexcel specification identifies three closely connected principles:
Nations are groups of people who identify themselves as a cohesive group based on shared values.
Self-determination is the belief that nations should decide how they are governed.
A nation-state exists where a nation rules itself within its own state and controls its own economy.
The three ideas form a logical chain:
nation → self-determination → nation-state
If a group constitutes a genuine nation, nationalists can argue that it forms a genuine political community. If it is a political community, it should be capable of deciding how it is governed. For many nationalists, the fullest expression of this self-determination is therefore an independent nation-state.
However, this chain is not accepted in exactly the same way by every nationalist. The specification explicitly requires you to understand that there are different ways of defining the nation and that support for the nation-state is widespread but not universal.
What is a nation?
A nation is a group of people who identify themselves as belonging to a cohesive community based on shared values.
The key word here is identify. A nation is more than simply a collection of people living under the same government. Nationalism gives political importance to the sense that people form a distinct community.
Nationalists agree that the nation matters, but disagree about why people belong to a nation.
Different understandings of the nation
One of the central debates within nationalism concerns the basis of national identity.
Understanding | Basis of national identity | Main implication |
Civic | Shared political values and participation | Membership can be understood in relatively open and inclusive terms |
Cultural | Shared culture, language, traditions or heritage | National identity grows from a distinctive cultural community |
More exclusive understandings | Membership is defined more narrowly | National identity may become restrictive and exclusive |
The specification therefore does not require you to treat the nation as having one universally accepted definition.
This distinction becomes particularly important when you study culture, ethnicity and internationalism [Culturalism, racialism and internationalism].
Civic understandings of the nation
Civic nationalism connects nationhood to political membership and shared political values.
The emphasis is on belonging to a political community rather than simply possessing a particular ancestry. This makes civic nationalism potentially inclusive, because membership can be based upon commitment and participation.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau's specification ideas help illustrate this position. His concept of civic nationalism treats a state as legitimate when founded upon the active participation of its citizens. His idea of the general will also connects the political community with collective self-government.
You will examine these ideas fully in nationalist thinkers [Rousseau, Herder and Mazzini].
Cultural understandings of the nation
Other nationalists see nations as communities formed by shared culture and heritage.
This understanding may stress factors such as:
language
traditions
historical experience
shared cultural practices
a distinctive national character
Johann Gottfried von Herder exemplifies this approach in the specification. His cultural nationalism argues that every nation has its own distinctive cultural character, rooted in its Volk, or people.
This produces a more organic view of the nation. Rather than being created simply through political agreement, the nation develops through shared historical and cultural experience.
Why this distinction matters
The definition of the nation affects almost every other nationalist debate.
If nationhood is mainly civic, membership may be relatively open. If nationhood depends more heavily on inherited cultural identity, joining a nation may require greater cultural assimilation. More exclusive approaches can narrow membership still further.
Therefore, nationalist disagreement is not really about whether nations are important. It is about what makes a group a nation and who belongs within it.
💡 Exam focus: When evaluating whether nationalism has a "common view of the nation", distinguish agreement about the importance of nations from disagreement about the basis of national identity.
The nation as the centre of nationalism
Despite disagreement over definitions, nationalists broadly agree that the nation should occupy a central position in political organisation.
Nationalism aims to promote:
national identity, a sense of belonging to the nation
national unity, cohesion between members of the nation
national autonomy, the ability of the nation to control its own affairs
This explains why nationalist politics repeatedly returns to the question of who should govern a nation.
The principle that answers this question is self-determination.
What is national self-determination?
Self-determination is the belief that nations should decide how they are governed.
It rests on the idea that the nation is not merely a cultural group. It is a genuine political community capable of self-government.
The principle therefore contains two important claims:
Nations possess a distinct political identity.
Decisions about a nation's government should ultimately belong to that nation.
This converts national identity into a claim to political autonomy.
Why nationalists support self-determination
For many nationalists, it would be inconsistent to say that a nation is a genuine political community while denying it control over its own government.
Self-determination can therefore be presented as an expression of national freedom.
The argument can be expressed as follows:
A nation forms a distinct community → that community should determine its own political future → outside domination prevents genuine national freedom.
Liberal and anti/post-colonial nationalism particularly emphasise this connection between self-determination and freedom.
The Edexcel mark schemes also recognise that conservative nationalists may support self-determination, although their reasons and the extent of their support differ. Expansionist nationalism presents the major exception because it can reject the equal right of other nations to determine their own political future.
Self-determination does not create complete nationalist agreement
A major examination trap is to write:
"All nationalists support self-determination."
That is too absolute.
A stronger answer distinguishes between:
Broad agreement:Â Most nationalists support self-determination.
Important disagreement: They may disagree over why it matters, how far the principle should extend and whether every nation possesses an equal right to it.
Position | Approach to self-determination |
Liberal nationalism | Strong support for nations governing themselves |
Anti/post-colonial nationalism | Strong support for liberation from external or colonial rule |
Conservative nationalism | Supports national independence but concentrates more strongly on cohesion within its own nation |
Expansionist nationalism | Can deny other nations an equal right to sovereignty and independence |
The detailed reasons for these differences are developed in the main nationalist traditions [Liberal, conservative, anti/post-colonial and expansionist nationalism].
From self-determination to the nation-state
The nation-state brings nationhood and political statehood together.
According to the specification, it is a nation that:
rules itself
possesses its own state
controls its own economy
For many nationalists, this is the logical political expression of national self-determination.
The sequence is:
People identify as a distinct nation.
The nation is understood as a political community.
The nation should possess self-determination.
Political self-determination is expressed through control of its own state.
The nation therefore becomes a nation-state.
Giuseppe Mazzini's specification ideas strongly connect human freedom with this argument. He believed that people could fully express themselves through their nation and linked human freedom to the creation of one's own nation-state.
His ideas are explored in Rousseau, Herder and Mazzini [Rousseau, Herder and Mazzini].
Why most nationalists support the nation-state
The nation-state receives broad nationalist support for several related reasons.
1. It provides national autonomy
A nation-state allows a nation to govern itself rather than being governed by an outside authority.
Political sovereignty therefore becomes an expression of national freedom.
2. It connects political boundaries to national identity
Nationalists may regard political organisation as most legitimate when the people governed see themselves as belonging to the same national community.
The state is therefore not simply an administrative institution. It expresses national identity.
3. It can promote national unity
A nation-state provides a shared political focus around which national identity can be organised.
This is particularly significant for conservative nationalism, which places strong emphasis on cohesion and unity within society.
4. It expresses self-determination
For liberal and anti/post-colonial nationalists in particular, statehood can provide the political independence necessary for genuine self-government.
5. Some nationalists link nation-states with international order
Liberal and anti/post-colonial nationalism can envisage a world made up of autonomous nation-states.
Each nation governs itself while respecting the independence of others. Under this interpretation, national independence does not have to produce international conflict. A world of self-governing nations can instead contribute to peace and order.
This relationship becomes clearer when studying nationalism and internationalism [Culturalism, racialism and internationalism].
Why support for the nation-state is not universal
Although the nation-state is one of nationalism's most important ideas, Edexcel explicitly states that it is not universally supported.
This is essential evaluation.
Expansionist nationalism
Expansionist nationalism challenges the principle that every nation should possess equal rights to self-determination.
Rather than accepting a world of equally sovereign nations, expansionist nationalism can regard one nation as entitled to dominate others.
This creates a fundamental contradiction with universal self-determination.
If Nation A claims a right to control Nation B, Nation B is being denied the very national freedom that most nationalists claim nations should possess.
The nation-state can therefore have two very different meanings:
for most nationalists, it can be a realm of national freedom
for expansionist nationalism, the power of one state can become a means of domination
Charles Maurras's integral nationalism and militarism help illustrate the more expansionist position. These ideas are developed in Maurras and Garvey [Maurras and Garvey].
Nation-state: agreement and disagreement compared
Area | Nationalist agreement | Nationalist disagreement |
Importance of the nation | The nation is central to political identity | Nationalists disagree about what makes a nation |
Self-determination | Most support national self-government | They disagree about its basis, extent and whether it applies equally to every nation |
Nation-state | Most regard it as an important expression of national autonomy | Expansionist nationalism challenges a world of equal, sovereign nation-states |
Membership | The nation should possess a coherent identity | Identity may be civic and inclusive or more cultural and exclusive |
International consequences | Some see independent nations as compatible with international order | Expansionist nationalism can produce domination rather than equal sovereignty |
Overall judgement
There is substantial agreement at the level of nationalism's basic principles.
The nation is central. Most nationalists support national self-determination. Most also see the nation-state as a desirable form of political organisation.
However, significant disagreements appear when these principles are applied.
Nationalists differ over:
what makes a nation
who belongs to it
why self-determination should be supported
whether all nations possess an equal right to self-determination
whether the nation-state should coexist equally with other nation-states
This distinction between agreement in principle and disagreement in interpretation and application is a powerful basis for evaluation in nationalism essays.
Linking the three concepts
A strong revision strategy is to see nations, self-determination and nation-states as one connected argument rather than three isolated definitions.
Concept | Central question | Nationalist answer |
Nation | Who forms the political community? | A cohesive group sharing values and a sense of identity |
Self-determination | Who should govern that community? | The nation should determine its own government |
Nation-state | What political form can this take? | A nation governing itself through its own state |
The debate then comes from asking:
What creates the nation?
Does every nation deserve self-determination?
Must self-determination result in a nation-state?
Should all nation-states enjoy equal independence?
These questions underpin much of the rest of the nationalism option.
Key Words 🔑
Key word | Student-friendly definition | How it may be used in an exam |
Nation | A group of people who identify as a cohesive community based on shared values. | Define the central political community within nationalism and compare different views of what creates it. |
Self-determination | The belief that nations should decide how they are governed. | Explain why most nationalists support national self-government and why expansionist nationalism creates disagreement. |
Nation-state | A nation that governs itself through its own state and controls its own economy. | Analyse why most nationalists connect national identity with political independence. |
Civic nationalism | An understanding of national identity based on shared political values and active citizenship. | Contrast relatively inclusive understandings of the nation with cultural or more exclusive approaches. |
National autonomy | The capacity of a nation to control its own political affairs. | Explain the connection between nationhood, self-determination and statehood. |
Hints from the Examiner Reports đź’ˇ
The examiner reports contain particularly useful guidance because Edexcel has directly examined the nation, self-determination and nation-state debates.
Examiner hint:Â Start by defining the exact concept in the question. In the 2022 nationalism question on self-determination, a high-level response was praised for establishing a clear definition at the beginning and then using it consistently throughout the essay.
Examiner hint:Â Organise essays around areas of agreement and disagreement, rather than simply writing one paragraph on liberal nationalism, another on conservative nationalism and so on. This creates much stronger comparative analysis.
Examiner hint: If the question asks "to what extent", make judgements about how significant the agreement or disagreement is. Do not merely identify that two views differ.
Examiner hint: Use nationalist vocabulary precisely. Terms such as inclusive, exclusive, progressive, regressive, rational and romantic can sharpen comparisons when they are directly relevant to the question.
Examiner hint:Â Thinkers should support your comparison between strands. Simply writing "Herder was a conservative nationalist" does little analytical work. Explain the relevant idea, such as Herder's cultural understanding of the nation, and show how it affects the debate.
The 2025 report on the nation-state also warned against turning a question about the nation-state into a pre-prepared essay about the state generally. Stronger responses dealt precisely with both the shared support for the nation-state and disagreements over its role, composition and relationship with self-determination.
Examiner hint:Â Agreement does not need to involve every strand. You can identify meaningful agreement between two or three forms of nationalism and then judge how significant that agreement is compared with wider divisions.
Common Mistakes ⚠️
Mistake: Treating a nation and a state as the same thing
Why this is incorrect: A nation refers to a community of people who identify as a cohesive group. A nation-state is the political outcome in which a nation governs itself through its own state.
How to improve: Use the sequence nation → self-determination → nation-state to keep the ideas distinct.
Mistake: Saying all nationalists define the nation in the same way
Why this is incorrect: The specification explicitly requires different definitions of the nation. Civic approaches stress shared political values, while cultural approaches place greater emphasis on distinctive heritage and culture.
How to improve: Whenever discussing "the nation", ask: what is supposed to bind the people together?
Mistake: Claiming all nationalists support self-determination equally
Why this is incorrect: Most nationalists support self-determination, but the reasons and extent vary. Expansionist nationalism can deny equal self-determination to other nations.
How to improve: Write "most nationalists" rather than "all nationalists", then identify expansionist nationalism as the major challenge.
Mistake: Assuming support for the nation-state is universal
Why this is incorrect: The Edexcel specification specifically states that the nation-state is supported by most nationalists but not universally.
How to improve: Build evaluation into the sentence: "Although the nation-state is strongly supported across nationalism, expansionist nationalism challenges the principle of equal sovereign nation-states."
Mistake: Describing each nationalist strand separately
Why this is incorrect: Examiner reports repeatedly identify comparison as crucial. Separate descriptions can produce lots of AO1 knowledge but weak AO2 analysis.
How to improve: Organise paragraphs around a theme such as self-determination, then compare several strands within the same paragraph.
Mistake: Naming thinkers instead of using their ideas
Why this is incorrect: A thinker's name alone does not explain an agreement or disagreement.
How to improve: Use the sequence thinker → idea → strand → comparison → judgement.
For example: Rousseau's civic nationalism connects legitimacy with active citizenship, which supports a relatively inclusive conception of the nation and contrasts with more culturally rooted understandings.
Exam-Style Questions ✍️
Question 1
Define the term "nation". (2 marks)
Answer: A nation is a group of people who identify themselves as a cohesive community based on shared values.
Award credit for both:
recognition of a cohesive group or community
shared identity or values
Question 2
Explain two features of national self-determination. (4 marks)
Indicative answer:
Nations should be able to decide how they are governed.
The nation is regarded as a genuine political community capable of governing itself.
Award up to 2 marks for each accurately explained feature.
Question 3
Explain why the principle of self-determination can lead nationalists to support the nation-state. (6 marks)
Indicative mark scheme:
A strong answer should establish a logical connection:
the nation is regarded as a distinct political community
self-determination means that community should decide how it is governed
a nation-state allows the nation to exercise political control through its own state
statehood can therefore express national autonomy and freedom
Higher marks require developed connections rather than several disconnected definitions.
Question 4
Compare civic and cultural understandings of what constitutes a nation. (6 marks)
Indicative mark scheme:
Credit should include:
civic understandings based on shared political values and participation
cultural understandings based on shared cultural character, heritage or traditions
identification of a genuine similarity or difference
explanation of the implications for national membership
A developed answer should recognise that both approaches regard the nation as a cohesive community but disagree over the foundations of that cohesion.
Question 5
Consider the following two nationalist movements:
Movement A:
"Anyone committed to our political values and willing to participate as an equal citizen can become part of our nation."
Movement B:
"Our nation exists because generations of people have inherited a distinctive culture, traditions and historical identity."
Analyse how the two statements demonstrate different understandings of the nation. (8 marks)
Indicative mark scheme:
Movement A reflects:
civic nationalism
political values
active citizenship
relatively inclusive national membership
Movement B reflects:
cultural nationalism
inherited cultural identity
traditions and heritage
a more organic understanding of national belonging
Strong analysis should explain that both statements seek national cohesion but locate its basis in different places.
Question 6
To what extent do disagreements about the meaning of nationhood weaken nationalist support for national self-determination and the nation-state? (24 marks)
In a full Edexcel political ideas response, you should use appropriate thinkers studied across the nationalism option to support your comparisons.
Indicative content
Arguments suggesting substantial agreement:
All nationalist traditions place the nation at the centre of political thought.
Most nationalists support self-determination.
Most nationalists view the nation-state as an important expression of national autonomy.
Liberal and anti/post-colonial nationalism strongly connect self-government with freedom.
Conservative nationalism also values the independent and cohesive national community.
Arguments suggesting significant disagreement:
Civic and cultural approaches disagree about the basis of nationhood.
Inclusive and exclusive understandings differ over who belongs to the nation.
Conservative and liberal nationalism may support the nation-state for different reasons.
Expansionist nationalism rejects the equal right of all nations to self-determination.
The nation-state can therefore be understood either as a vehicle for national freedom or, in expansionist nationalism, as a vehicle for domination.
Assessment guidance
The 24 marks are divided equally between:
AO1, 8 marks:Â accurate and detailed knowledge and understanding
AO2, 8 marks:Â comparative analysis, including similarities, differences and logical connections
AO3, 8 marks:Â evaluation, substantiated judgements and a justified conclusion
A high-level response should not simply list nationalist strands. Structure the answer thematically, compare competing positions directly and make judgements about the extent of agreement throughout.
An effective overall judgement could argue that disagreement about the definition of the nation is significant, but does not destroy the deeper nationalist consensus that the nation should be politically important. The sharpest division emerges over whether self-determination is a universal right, because expansionist nationalism challenges the equal independence of other nations.
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