Questionnaires | AQA A-Level Psychology Revision

For 7182 specification, first teach in September 2025

AQA A-Level Psychology | Free Revision Notes

Estimated study time: 45 minutes

These Questionnaires A-Level Psychology revision notes explain how psychologists use written questions to collect self-report data. You will distinguish open questions from closed questions and learn how to construct clear, relevant and unbiased questionnaire items. Questionnaires can collect information about behaviour, attitudes and experiences that may not be directly observable. They are closely related to researcher-led self-report methods and may produce both numerical and descriptive evidence.

Learning Objectives 🎯

By the end of this revision page, you should be able to:

• Define a questionnaire.

• Explain why questionnaires are self-report methods.

• Identify the types of information questionnaires can collect.

• Distinguish open and closed questions.

• Explain the type of data produced by each question format.

• Construct clear and suitable questionnaire items.

• Identify weaknesses in poorly designed questions.

• Suggest appropriate improvements to questionnaire items.

Revision Notes 📚

Questionnaires A-Level Psychology revision overview

A questionnaire is a self-report method consisting of a set of written questions that participants answer.

Questionnaires may ask participants about:

• Their behaviour.

• Their attitudes.

• Their beliefs.

• Their opinions.

• Their experiences.

• Their feelings.

• Their preferences.

For example, a questionnaire could investigate:

• How often students revise.

• Attitudes towards school uniform.

• Experiences of stress.

• Reasons for using social media.

• Feelings about group work.

• Sleep habits.

The participant provides the information themselves rather than the researcher observing the behaviour directly.

What is a self-report method?

A self-report method is a technique in which participants provide information about themselves.

The participant reports their own:

• Thoughts.

• Feelings.

• Experiences.

• Attitudes.

• Behaviour.

This distinguishes questionnaires from observational techniques.

Questionnaire	Observation
Participants report information about themselves	Researchers watch and record behaviour
Can investigate private thoughts and feelings	Records behaviour that can be seen or heard
Relies on the participant’s answers	Relies on the observer’s recording
May ask about past experiences	Usually records behaviour as it occurs

Questionnaires are useful when the target information cannot be observed directly.

For example, a psychologist cannot directly observe whether a person believes that

examinations are fair. They can ask the person to report their attitude in a questionnaire.

Questionnaires and interviews

Questionnaires and interviews are both self-report techniques.

The main distinction is how questions are presented and answered.

Questionnaire	Interview
Participant usually reads and answers written questions	Researcher usually asks questions verbally
Researcher may not be present	Researcher interacts with the participant
Same written questions can be given to many people	Questions may be explained or followed up
Responses may be brief	Responses may be explored in greater depth

The construction and evaluation of interviews are covered in structured and unstructured questioning.

What information can questionnaires collect?

Questionnaires can investigate information that is difficult to access through direct observation.

For example:

Behaviour

During the past seven days, on how many days did you revise psychology?

Attitude

How strongly do you agree that homework improves learning?

Experience

Describe one difficulty you have experienced when revising for examinations.

Preference

Which revision method do you use most often?

Feeling

How anxious do you usually feel before an examination?

The researcher must decide exactly what information is needed before writing the questions.

A questionnaire is not automatically an experiment

A questionnaire is a method of collecting data.

It does not necessarily involve:

• Manipulating an independent variable.

• Allocating participants to conditions.

• Testing cause and effect.

For example:

A psychologist gives students a questionnaire about their revision habits.

This is a questionnaire study, but not necessarily an experiment.

A questionnaire could also be used within an experiment.

For example:

1. Participants complete a stressful or non-stressful task.

2. They then complete a questionnaire measuring their reported anxiety.

3. The questionnaire provides the dependent-variable data.

Questionnaires can also be used to measure variables in research investigating associations between measures.

Standardisation

Questionnaires are often highly standardised.

Standardisation means that each participant receives:

• The same questions.

• In the same wording.

• In the same order.

• With the same response options.

• With the same instructions.

This makes participants’ responses easier to compare.

It also makes the procedure easier to repeat.

However, standardisation does not guarantee that every participant interprets a question in the same way.

Administration of questionnaires

A questionnaire may be completed:

• On paper.

• Online.

• In a classroom.

• In a research setting.

• At home.

• In the presence or absence of a researcher.

The method of administration may affect responses.

For example, participants may answer differently if:

• A teacher is standing nearby.

• Their name is required.

• They believe someone they know will read their answers.

• They complete the questionnaire privately.

• They are rushed.

Researchers should keep the administration procedure as consistent as possible.

Open questions

What is an open question?

An open question allows participants to answer in their own words.

The researcher does not provide a fixed set of response options.

For example:

Describe how you usually feel before an examination.

The participant decides:

• What information to include.

• How much detail to provide.

• Which words to use.

• Which experiences are most important.

Examples of open questions

Suitable open questions include:

Explain one reason why you use social media.

Describe your usual revision routine.

How did you feel during your most recent examination?

What could your school do to help students manage stress?

Describe one advantage of working in a group.

Each question gives the participant freedom to construct their own response.

Open questions produce qualitative data

Open questions usually produce qualitative data.

Qualitative data are descriptive and expressed in words.

For example:

“I revise more effectively in the morning because I am less tired and there are fewer distractions.”

This response contains detail that would be lost if the participant could select only from fixed choices.

Strength of open questions: detailed responses

Open questions allow participants to explain their answers.

They may reveal:

• Reasons for behaviour.

• Personal experiences.

• Unexpected opinions.

• Individual differences.

• Explanations the researcher had not anticipated.

For example, a researcher may expect students to avoid revision because they lack motivation.

Open responses might reveal additional reasons, such as:

• Caring responsibilities.

• Lack of a quiet space.

• Uncertainty about what to revise.

• Difficulty accessing resources.

This can provide a fuller understanding of the topic.

Strength of open questions: participant meaning

Open questions allow participants to express ideas using their own language.

The researcher does not force every participant into predetermined categories.

This can improve validity when:

• The topic is complex.

• Participants may have different experiences.

• The researcher does not know all possible answers.

• The reasons behind behaviour are important.

Strength of open questions: unexpected information

A participant may mention something that the researcher had not considered.

This may:

• Identify a new factor.

• Suggest a new research question.

• Reveal a weakness in the researcher’s assumptions.

• Help improve later questionnaires.

• Provide examples that explain quantitative findings.

Open questions are therefore particularly useful during early investigation of a topic.

Limitation of open questions: difficult to analyse

Participants may produce very different answers.

Researchers must decide how to:

• Organise the responses.

• Identify common themes.

• Compare participants.

• Summarise lengthy answers.

• Deal with unclear or incomplete responses.

This can be time-consuming.

It may also require researcher judgement, which could reduce objectivity.

Limitation of open questions: difficult to compare

Suppose participants are asked:

How often do you feel stressed?

One person might write:

“Quite regularly when deadlines are approaching.”

Another might write:

“Sometimes.”

These answers are difficult to compare precisely because the participants have interpreted frequency differently.

A closed question with clearly defined options could produce more consistent data.

Limitation of open questions: variation in detail

Some participants may write several paragraphs, while others provide only one word.

The amount of data may therefore depend on:

• Writing ability.

• Motivation.

• Time available.

• Interest in the topic.

• Understanding of the question.

A brief answer does not necessarily mean that the participant has little experience or a weak opinion.

Limitation of open questions: participant effort

Open questions require participants to:

• Think about their response.

• Decide what to include.

• Express it clearly.

• Spend time writing.

If a questionnaire contains too many open questions, participants may:

• Become tired.

• Skip items.

• Give shorter answers.

• Stop completing the questionnaire.

• Provide less thoughtful responses near the end.

Researchers should include open questions only where their detail is useful.

Closed questions

What is a closed question?

A closed question provides participants with a fixed set of possible responses.

Participants select the response that best represents their answer.

For example:

Have you revised psychology during the past seven days?

• Yes

• No

The participant cannot construct an unrestricted response.

Examples of closed questions

Yes or no

Do you use a revision timetable?

• Yes

• No

Multiple choice

Which revision method do you use most often?

• Flashcards

• Practice questions

• Reading notes

• Videos

• Group revision

• Other

Frequency categories

During the past seven days, on how many days did you revise psychology?

• 0 days

• 1 to 2 days

• 3 to 4 days

• 5 to 6 days

• 7 days

Rating scale

How useful do you find practice questions?

• 1: Not at all useful

• 2: Slightly useful

• 3: Moderately useful

• 4: Very useful

• 5: Extremely useful

Agreement scale

Indicate how strongly you agree with the statement:“I feel confident about my next psychology examination.”

• Strongly disagree

• Disagree

• Neither agree nor disagree

• Agree

• Strongly agree

Closed questions usually produce quantitative data

Closed questions usually produce quantitative data because responses can be counted or represented numerically.

For example:

• 42 participants selected “agree”.

• The mean confidence rating was 3.6.

• 65% of participants reported revising on three or more days.

This makes responses easier to summarise and compare.

Strength of closed questions: easy to analyse

Fixed responses can be:

• Counted.

• Converted into percentages.

• Displayed in tables.

• Displayed in graphs.

• Compared between groups.

• Analysed statistically where appropriate.

This makes closed questions efficient when a large number of questionnaires has been completed.

Strength of closed questions: easier comparison

Every participant selects from the same response options.

This creates consistency.

For example, if every participant rates anxiety from 1 to 5, researchers can compare:

• Individual ratings.

• Group averages.

• Ratings before and after an event.

• Ratings from different samples.

The standardised response format can improve reliability.

Strength of closed questions: quick to complete

Participants can answer closed questions rapidly.

This may:

• Reduce tiredness.

• Increase completion rates.

• Allow more topics to be covered.

• Reduce lengthy or irrelevant answers.

• Make the questionnaire suitable for large samples.

However, speed should not be achieved by using unclear or inadequate response options.

Strength of closed questions: reduced irrelevant material

Participants must respond to the specific question using the available categories.

This prevents lengthy answers that do not address the research aim.

The researcher receives data in a form planned before collection begins.

Limitation of closed questions: restricted responses

The fixed options may not represent what a participant actually thinks.

For example:

Why do you revise?

• To achieve high grades

• Because my teacher tells me to

• Because my parents expect me to

A participant may revise because they enjoy the subject, but that option is unavailable.

They may:

• Select an inaccurate answer.

• Leave the question blank.

• Choose the closest option even though it does not fit.

Researchers should include all reasonable options and use “other” where appropriate.

Limitation of closed questions: loss of detail

A numerical response does not explain why the participant selected it.

For example:

Rate your examination anxiety from 1 to 5.

Two participants may both select 4, but for different reasons:

• One fears forgetting the content.

• One worries about running out of time.

• One has had a previous negative examination experience.

The closed response records the level of anxiety but not its explanation.

Limitation of closed questions: researcher assumptions

The researcher chooses the available responses.

If the researcher has overlooked an important answer, the questionnaire may produce incomplete or misleading data.

Closed questions therefore depend heavily on effective construction and piloting.

Limitation of closed questions: different interpretations

Even when responses are fixed, participants may interpret the question differently.

For example:

Do you revise regularly?

• Yes

• No

“Regularly” could mean:

• Every day.

• Every week.

• Before each test.

• Whenever homework is set.

The closed format does not remove ambiguity from the question wording.

Comparing open and closed questions

Feature	Open questions	Closed questions
Response format	Participant answers in their own words	Participant selects from fixed options
Typical data	Qualitative	Quantitative
Detail	Usually high	Usually limited
Unexpected responses	Possible	Restricted by available options
Speed of completion	Usually slower	Usually faster
Analysis	More difficult and time-consuming	Easier to count and compare
Researcher control	Lower	Higher
Standardisation	Lower	Higher
Participant expression	Greater freedom	More restricted
Statistical analysis	More difficult	Usually easier

Choosing open questions

Open questions may be most suitable when the researcher wants:

• Detailed explanations.

• Personal experiences.

• Reasons for behaviour.

• Unexpected ideas.

• Participants’ own wording.

• An initial exploration of a topic.

Choosing closed questions

Closed questions may be most suitable when the researcher wants:

• Numerical data.

• Quick completion.

• Easy comparison.

• A large sample.

• Standardised responses.

• Statistical analysis.

• Measurement of frequency or strength.

Using both question types

A questionnaire may contain both open and closed questions.

For example:

How useful do you find group revision?

• 1: Not at all useful

• 2: Slightly useful

• 3: Moderately useful

• 4: Very useful

• 5: Extremely useful

Explain the main reason for your answer.

The closed question provides a standardised rating.

The open question provides an explanation.

Using both types can produce:

• Quantitative data for comparison.

• Qualitative data for detail.

However, adding open questions increases the time required for completion and analysis.

Designing suitable questionnaire items

Begin with the research aim

Every questionnaire item should contribute to the aim of the investigation.

Suppose the aim is:

To investigate A-Level students’ use of revision strategies.

Suitable questions might ask:

• Which strategies students use.

• How often they use them.

• How useful students believe they are.

• Why particular strategies are chosen.

An unsuitable question might ask:

What is your favourite school subject?

Unless subject preference is relevant to the research aim, this item wastes time and produces irrelevant data.

Before including a question, ask:

How will the answer help address the research aim?

Operationalise the topic

Operationalisation means defining a concept clearly enough for it to be measured.

A vague question might ask:

Do you revise a lot?

The terms “revise” and “a lot” are unclear.

A more operationalised question would ask:

During the past seven days, approximately how many hours did you spend revising psychology outside lessons?

The improved question specifies:

• The activity.

• The subject.

• The time period.

• The unit of measurement.

Questionnaire design therefore relies on clear and measurable definitions of variables.

Use clear wording

Questionnaire items should use words participants are likely to understand.

Avoid:

• Unnecessary technical language.

• Complex sentence structures.

• Vague expressions.

• Unexplained abbreviations.

• Words with several possible meanings.

Poor item:

To what extent do metacognitive retrieval strategies enhance your academic efficacy?

Improved item:

How useful do you find testing yourself when revising?

The improved question communicates the intended meaning more directly.

Keep questions concise

Long questions increase the chance that participants will:

• Misread the item.

• Forget the beginning.

• Focus on only one part.

• Misunderstand the response required.

Poor item:

Thinking about all of the different forms of revision that you may have completed both independently and during school lessons over the past several weeks, how effective would you say that these activities have generally been?

Improved item:

How effective has your revision been during the past four weeks?

Concise wording is usually easier to interpret consistently.

Ask about one issue at a time

A question should not ask about two different things while allowing only one answer.

Poor item:

How useful and enjoyable do you find group revision?

A participant may find it:

• Useful but not enjoyable.

• Enjoyable but not useful.

One response cannot represent both views accurately.

Improved items:

How useful do you find group revision?

How enjoyable do you find group revision?

Separating the issues improves validity.

Avoid questions that suggest an answer

Question wording should be neutral.

Poor item:

Don’t you agree that practice questions are the best revision method?

This suggests that agreement is expected.

Improved item:

How useful do you find practice questions as a revision method?

Or:

Which revision method do you find most useful?

Neutral wording reduces the influence of the researcher’s expectations.

Avoid assumptions

A question should not assume that every participant has had a particular experience.

Poor item:

How helpful was the revision timetable you created?

This assumes that the participant created one.

Improved sequence:

Have you created a revision timetable?

• Yes

• No

Participants who answer “yes” could then be asked:

How helpful did you find your revision timetable?

Specify a time period

Questions asking about behaviour should normally identify a clear period.

Poor item:

How often do you revise?

The participant may think about:

• The current week.

• The whole school year.

• The period before examinations.

• Their general habits.

Improved item:

During the past seven days, on how many days did you revise psychology?

A specific time period helps participants interpret the question consistently.

Avoid questions requiring difficult recall

Participants may struggle to remember behaviour across a long period.

Poor item:

How many hours have you spent revising psychology during the past year?

Improved item:

Approximately how many hours did you spend revising psychology during the past seven days?

A shorter and clearly defined period is easier to remember.

Answers may still be estimates, so researchers should not assume complete accuracy.

Avoid double negatives

Negative wording can be confusing, particularly when paired with agreement options.

Poor item:

Do you disagree that revision timetables are not useful?

Participants must work through two negatives before answering.

Improved item:

How useful do you find revision timetables?

Questions should be as easy to interpret as possible.

Avoid vague frequency words

Words such as the following can mean different things to different participants:

• Often.

• Regularly.

• Sometimes.

• Rarely.

• A lot.

• Usually.

Poor item:

Do you often use flashcards?

Improved item:

During the past seven days, on how many days did you use flashcards?

The improved question gives the response a clear reference point.

Make sensitive questions appropriate

Questionnaires may investigate sensitive topics such as:

• Mental health.

• Family experiences.

• Rule-breaking.

• Personal relationships.

• Substance use.

• Financial circumstances.

Researchers should:

• Ask only questions relevant to the aim.

• Use respectful wording.

• Avoid unnecessary personal detail.

• Explain confidentiality.

• Allow participants to omit a question where appropriate.

• Avoid wording that is judgemental.

• Consider whether the topic may cause distress.

The wider principles are covered in ethical protection within psychological studies.

Avoid judgemental wording

Poor item:

How often do you irresponsibly leave revision until the last minute?

The word “irresponsibly” judges the participant.

Improved item:

How many days before a test do you usually begin revising?

Neutral wording may encourage more honest answers.

Make response options complete

Closed questions should include all reasonable responses.

Poor item:

How do you usually travel to school?

• Car

• Bus

• Walk

This excludes participants who travel by:

• Train.

• Bicycle.

• Taxi.

• Another method.

Improved item:

How do you usually travel to school?

• Walk

• Bicycle

• Car

• Bus

• Train

• Other

The response “other” prevents participants from being forced into an unsuitable category.

Make response options non-overlapping

Each participant should be able to identify one appropriate category.

Poor item:

How many hours do you revise each week?

• 0 to 2 hours

• 2 to 4 hours

• 4 to 6 hours

• More than 6 hours

A participant who revises for exactly two hours could select either of the first two options.

Improved item:

• Less than 2 hours

• 2 to less than 4 hours

• 4 to less than 6 hours

• 6 hours or more

The categories no longer overlap.

Include the full possible range

Response categories should cover all likely answers.

Poor item:

How many hours do you sleep each night?

• 5 hours

• 6 hours

• 7 hours

• 8 hours

This excludes participants who sleep for less than five or more than eight hours.

Improved item:

• Fewer than 5 hours

• 5 to fewer than 6 hours

• 6 to fewer than 7 hours

• 7 to fewer than 8 hours

• 8 hours or more

Keep response options balanced

A question should not provide more positive than negative choices.

Poor item:

How useful is homework?

• Extremely useful

• Very useful

• Quite useful

• Slightly useful

• Not useful

Most options encourage a positive response.

A more balanced scale would provide equivalent positive and negative positions around a midpoint.

For example:

• Very unhelpful

• Unhelpful

• Neither helpful nor unhelpful

• Helpful

• Very helpful

Label response scales clearly

Participants should understand what each point means.

Poor item:

Rate your confidence from 1 to 5.

The participant may not know whether 1 means high or low confidence.

Improved item:

Rate your confidence about the next examination.

• 1: Not at all confident

• 2: Slightly confident

• 3: Moderately confident

• 4: Very confident

• 5: Extremely confident

Clear labels reduce interpretation differences.

Include “not applicable” where necessary

Some questions may not apply to every participant.

For example:

How useful do you find revising with friends?

A participant who never revises with friends cannot give a meaningful usefulness rating.

Appropriate options might include:

• Very unhelpful

• Unhelpful

• Neither helpful nor unhelpful

• Helpful

• Very helpful

• Not applicable because I do not revise with friends

Use logical question order

A questionnaire should have a clear structure.

A suitable order might be:

1. Brief instructions.

2. Simple introductory questions.

3. Questions directly linked to the main aim.

4. More detailed questions.

5. Sensitive or personal questions later where necessary.

6. Final opportunity to add relevant information.

A disorganised questionnaire can confuse participants and reduce completion.

Avoid unnecessary repetition

Several questions may appear different while measuring almost the same thing.

For example:

Do you enjoy psychology?

Do you like psychology?

Is psychology an enjoyable subject?

Unless repetition has a clear purpose, it makes the questionnaire longer without adding useful information.

Keep the questionnaire an appropriate length

A questionnaire that is too long may cause:

• Tiredness.

• Boredom.

• Skipped items.

• Brief answers.

• Withdrawal.

• Less careful responding near the end.

A questionnaire that is too short may fail to collect enough information.

Every item should have a clear purpose.

Give clear instructions

Participants should be told:

• How to answer.

• Whether they may select more than one option.

• Whether every question should be answered.

• Whether responses are anonymous.

• How long completion should take.

• Where to return the questionnaire.

• Whether they may withdraw.

For example:

Please select one response for each question unless instructed otherwise.

Instructions should not leave participants guessing what is required.

Piloting a questionnaire

What is a pilot study?

A pilot study is a small-scale trial conducted before the main investigation.

Piloting a questionnaire can reveal whether:

• Questions are unclear.

• Participants interpret wording differently.

• Important response options are missing.

• Categories overlap.

• The questionnaire is too long.

• Instructions are confusing.

• Participants avoid particular questions.

• The intended data cannot be analysed easily.

This process is explored fully in testing and improving research procedures.

Using participant feedback

After completing the draft questionnaire, pilot participants could be asked:

• Which questions were difficult to understand?

• Were any response options missing?

• Did any questions seem repetitive?

• Were any questions uncomfortable or intrusive?

• How long did completion take?

• Did the instructions make sense?

The researcher can then revise the questionnaire before collecting the main data.

Example of improvement after piloting

Original item:

Do you regularly revise using active methods?

Pilot participants may not understand:

• “Regularly”.

• “Active methods”.

Improved item:

During the past seven days, on how many days did you test yourself using flashcards or practice questions?

The revised item:

• Defines the behaviour.

• Specifies a time period.

• Gives examples.

• Can produce a measurable response.

Reliability of questionnaire items

What is reliability?

Reliability concerns consistency.

A questionnaire should produce reasonably consistent results when:

• The same construct is measured again under similar conditions.

• The questions are interpreted consistently.

• Scoring procedures are applied in the same way.

Questionnaire reliability may be reduced by:

• Ambiguous wording.

• Inconsistent instructions.

• Different administration conditions.

• Participants guessing at unclear questions.

• Changing response scales unnecessarily.

• Unclear scoring.

The wider issue is developed through measuring and improving consistency.

Improving reliability

Reliability may be improved by:

• Using clear wording.

• Standardising instructions.

• Keeping administration conditions consistent.

• Providing clear response categories.

• Piloting the questionnaire.

• Removing ambiguous items.

• Using the same scoring procedure for everyone.

Closed questions are often easier to score consistently because response options are fixed.

However, a reliably scored questionnaire may still measure the wrong thing.

Validity of questionnaire items

What is validity?

Validity concerns whether the questionnaire measures what it claims to measure.

Suppose a researcher wants to measure examination anxiety but asks only:

How many examinations do you have this month?

This measures examination frequency, not necessarily anxiety.

A more valid item would ask directly about the participant’s feelings or symptoms associated with examinations.

Questionnaire validity is developed in whether research measures what it intends to measure.

Threats to validity

Questionnaire responses may lack validity because participants:

• Misunderstand a question.

• Cannot remember accurately.

• Guess the purpose of the research.

• Give the answer they believe is expected.

• Present themselves favourably.

• Rush through the questionnaire.

• Avoid admitting sensitive behaviour.

• Select an option that does not represent their view.

Researchers should not automatically treat every self-report answer as a perfect record of the participant’s behaviour or feelings.

Anonymous responses

Participants may answer more honestly when they are not required to provide their names.

Anonymity may be particularly useful for questions about:

• Rule-breaking.

• Personal difficulties.

• Unpopular attitudes.

• Sensitive experiences.

• Behaviour participants may wish to conceal.

However, anonymity does not guarantee honest responding.

Participants may still:

• Misremember.

• Misunderstand.

• Guess the aim.

• Give careless responses.

Demand characteristics

Participants may identify the questionnaire’s aim from its questions.

For example, a questionnaire containing repeated items about sleep and concentration may reveal that the researcher expects the two to be connected.

Participants may then alter their answers to:

• Support the expected result.

• Challenge the expected result.

• Appear helpful.

• Present themselves in a particular way.

These influences are examined further in participant expectations and researcher influence.

Designing open questionnaire items

Requirements of a suitable open question

A suitable open question should:

• Be directly relevant to the aim.

• Be clear.

• Ask about one issue.

• Avoid leading wording.

• Allow a meaningful range of responses.

• State the required time period where relevant.

• Encourage an appropriate amount of detail.

Example aim

To investigate why students use online revision videos.

Poor open question:

Why are revision videos so useful?

Problems:

• It assumes that the videos are useful.

• It suggests a positive response.

• It may exclude students who do not find them useful.

Improved open question:

Explain one reason why you do or do not use online revision videos.

This allows both positive and negative responses.

Another open-question example

Aim:

To investigate students’ experiences of examination stress.

Poor item:

Tell me about stress.

Problems:

• Too broad.

• Does not mention examinations.

• Gives no indication of the type of information required.

Improved item:

Describe one situation connected with examinations that you find stressful.

This question is specific enough to address the aim while remaining open.

Designing closed questionnaire items

Requirements of a suitable closed question

A suitable closed question should:

• Be relevant to the aim.

• Use clear wording.

• Ask about one issue.

• Provide complete response options.

• Avoid overlapping categories.

• Use balanced choices.

• Label the response scale.

• Include “other” or “not applicable” where appropriate.

Example aim

To investigate how often students use practice questions.

Poor item:

Do you use practice questions regularly?

• Yes

• No

Problems:

• “Regularly” is unclear.

• Participants may interpret it differently.

• The question provides little detail about frequency.

Improved item:

During the past seven days, on how many days did you complete psychology practice questions?

• 0 days

• 1 to 2 days

• 3 to 4 days

• 5 to 6 days

• 7 days

Example of a suitable rating item

Aim:

To measure students’ confidence about an examination.

Suitable item:

How confident do you feel about your next psychology examination?

• 1: Not at all confident

• 2: Slightly confident

• 3: Moderately confident

• 4: Very confident

• 5: Extremely confident

The item:

• Measures one concept.

• Specifies the examination.

• Provides clearly ordered options.

• Labels the scale.

• Produces data that can be compared.

Identifying faults in questionnaire items

Fault 1: unclear wording

Do you revise properly?

Problems:

• “Properly” is undefined.

• Participants may use different standards.

Improvement:

During the past seven days, how many psychology practice questions did you complete?

Fault 2: two issues in one item

How useful and enjoyable are psychology lessons?

Problems:

• Usefulness and enjoyment are separate.

• One answer may not apply to both.

Improvement:

How useful do you find psychology lessons?

How enjoyable do you find psychology lessons?

Fault 3: suggested answer

Do you agree that homework is essential for success?

Problems:

• “Essential” encourages agreement.

• The wording presents the positive claim as correct.

Improvement:

How useful do you find homework for supporting your learning?

Fault 4: vague time period

How much sleep do you usually get?

Problems:

• “Usually” has no clear reference period.

• Sleep may vary across school days and weekends.

Improvement:

During the past seven nights, approximately how many hours did you sleep per night?

Fault 5: incomplete options

Which device do you use for online revision?

• Laptop

• Tablet

Problems:

• Phone and other devices are missing.

• Participants may use more than one device.

Improvement:

Which device do you use most often for online revision?

• Phone

• Laptop

• Tablet

• Desktop computer

• Other

• I do not use online revision

Fault 6: overlapping options

How many hours do you revise each week?

• 0 to 3

• 3 to 6

• 6 to 9

• More than 9

Problems:

• Three and six appear in two categories.

Improvement:

• Fewer than 3 hours

• 3 to fewer than 6 hours

• 6 to fewer than 9 hours

• 9 hours or more

Fault 7: double negative

Do you disagree that homework should not be reduced?

Problems:

• The wording is unnecessarily difficult to interpret.

Improvement:

Should the amount of homework be reduced?

• Yes

• No

• Unsure

Fault 8: assumption

How much did your revision timetable improve your grades?

Problems:

• Assumes the participant used a timetable.

• Assumes that grades improved.

• Asks about two linked ideas without establishing either.

Improvement:

Did you use a revision timetable before your most recent test?

• Yes

• No

For those answering “yes”:

How useful did you find the timetable?

Selecting an appropriate question format

Scenario: exploring a new topic

A researcher knows little about why students stop attending extracurricular activities.

Open questions may be appropriate because they allow participants to:

• Describe personal reasons.

• Mention unexpected factors.

• Explain circumstances in detail.

Suitable item:

Explain the main reason why you stopped attending the activity.

Scenario: comparing a large sample

A researcher wants to compare how often 500 students use different revision methods.

Closed questions may be appropriate because:

• They are quick to complete.

• Responses can be counted.

• Percentages can be calculated.

• Methods can be compared efficiently.

Suitable item:

Which revision method did you use most frequently during the past seven days?

• Flashcards

• Practice questions

• Reading notes

• Videos

• Group revision

• Other

• I did not revise

Scenario: measuring strength of attitude

A researcher wants to measure agreement with a school policy.

A closed rating scale may be appropriate.

Suitable item:

How strongly do you agree that the school day should begin later?

• Strongly disagree

• Disagree

• Neither agree nor disagree

• Agree

• Strongly agree

Scenario: obtaining a rating and explanation

A researcher wants both comparable data and reasons.

They could use:

1. A closed rating item.

2. An open follow-up question.

For example:

How useful do you find teacher feedback?

• 1: Not at all useful

• 2: Slightly useful

• 3: Moderately useful

• 4: Very useful

• 5: Extremely useful

Explain the main reason for your rating.

A method for answering questionnaire-design questions

Step 1: Identify the research aim

What information does the researcher need?

Step 2: Choose open or closed

Choose:

• Open for detailed explanations.

• Closed for standardised numerical responses.

Step 3: Write a clear item

Use:

• Simple wording.

• One issue.

• A specific time period where appropriate.

• Neutral language.

Step 4: Add suitable response options

For a closed question, ensure that the options are:

• Complete.

• Non-overlapping.

• Balanced.

• Clearly labelled.

Step 5: Check the item against the aim

Ask:

Would the answer provide data that address the research question?

Step 6: Check ethics and sensitivity

Consider whether:

• The item is intrusive.

• Participants can decline to answer.

• Confidentiality is explained.

• The wording could cause distress.

Step 7: Pilot the item

Use a small trial to identify unclear wording or missing options.

Writing an effective distinction

A strong distinction might state:

An open question allows participants to answer in their own words and usually produces qualitative data. A closed question requires participants to select from predetermined response options and usually produces quantitative data.

This answer:

• Defines both types.

• Makes a direct comparison.

• Identifies the usual form of data produced.

Writing an effective design justification

A developed justification might state:

A closed question would be appropriate because the researcher wants to compare how frequently a large number of students revise. Fixed frequency categories would allow responses to be counted and converted into percentages. The categories should cover every possible response without overlapping. However, the item would provide limited information about why students revise at different frequencies, so an open follow-up question could be added.

Overall summary

A questionnaire is a self-report method in which participants answer written questions about themselves.

Open questions:

• Allow answers in the participant’s own words.

• Usually produce qualitative data.

• Provide detail and unexpected information.

• Are slower to answer and analyse.

• May be difficult to compare.

Closed questions:

• Provide fixed response options.

• Usually produce quantitative data.

• Are quick to complete and analyse.

• Allow easy comparison.

• Restrict the participant’s answer.

Suitable questionnaire items should:

• Address the research aim.

• Use clear and neutral wording.

• Ask about one issue.

• Avoid unclear terms and double negatives.

• Specify a time period where relevant.

• Avoid assuming a particular experience.

• Provide complete, balanced and non-overlapping options.

• Be piloted before the main investigation.

• Respect confidentiality and other ethical requirements.

Key Words 🔑

Key word	Student-friendly definition	How it may be used in an exam
Questionnaire	A self-report method consisting of written questions answered by participants.	Define the method or design a questionnaire study.
Self-report method	A method in which participants provide information about themselves.	Explain how questionnaire data are collected.
Open question	A question that allows participants to answer in their own words.	Design an item producing detailed qualitative data.
Closed question	A question with predetermined response options.	Design an item producing standardised quantitative data.
Qualitative data	Descriptive information usually expressed in words.	Identify the type of data produced by open questions.
Quantitative data	Numerical information that can be counted or measured.	Identify the type of data produced by closed questions.
Response option	One of the answers available for a closed question.	Construct complete and non-overlapping categories.
Rating scale	A set of ordered response options used to measure the strength of a response.	Design a closed question measuring an attitude or feeling.
Operationalisation	Defining a concept in a clear and measurable way.	Improve a vague questionnaire item.
Standardisation	Giving participants the same questions, instructions and response options.	Explain consistency in questionnaire administration.
Pilot study	A small trial used to identify problems before the main research.	Explain how questionnaire design can be improved.
Reliability	The consistency of a measure or procedure.	Evaluate whether questions are interpreted and scored consistently.
Validity	The extent to which a questionnaire measures what it intends to measure.	Evaluate unclear, leading or restricted questions.
Demand characteristics	Cues that allow participants to guess the aim and alter their responses.	Explain why self-report answers may be affected.
Anonymity	Collecting responses without linking them to the participant’s identity.	Suggest how honest responses may be encouraged.
Confidentiality	Protecting participants’ identities and personal information.	Explain an ethical requirement of questionnaire research.
Informed consent	Agreement to participate based on sufficient information about the research.	Explain an ethical requirement before administering a questionnaire.
Research aim	A statement of what the researcher intends to investigate.	Ensure every questionnaire item collects relevant information.

Common Mistakes ⚠️

Mistake: Describing a questionnaire as an observation.

Why this is incorrect:A questionnaire asks participants to report information about themselves rather than recording their behaviour directly.

How to improve:Identify questionnaires as self-report techniques.

Mistake: Saying that open questions provide fixed response options.

Why this is incorrect:Open questions allow participants to construct answers in their own words.

How to improve:Associate open questions with unrestricted responses and qualitative data.

Mistake: Saying that closed questions always require a yes or no response.

Why this is incorrect:Closed questions may use multiple-choice options, frequency categories or rating scales.

How to improve:Define a closed question as any item with predetermined response options.

Mistake: Saying that open questions produce quantitative data.

Why this is incorrect:Open questions usually produce descriptive answers expressed in words.

How to improve:Link open questions with qualitative data.

Mistake: Saying that closed questions automatically produce valid data.

Why this is incorrect:Poor wording or unsuitable response options may force participants to give inaccurate answers.

How to improve:Evaluate the wording and categories as well as the response format.

Mistake: Asking about two issues in one item.

Why this is incorrect:A participant may have different responses to each issue but is allowed only one answer.

How to improve:Separate the item into two questions.

Mistake: Using vague words such as “often” or “regularly”.

Why this is incorrect:Participants may interpret these words differently.

How to improve:Specify a time period and ask for a measurable frequency.

Mistake: Writing a question that suggests the expected response.

Why this is incorrect:The wording may influence participants rather than measure their genuine opinion.

How to improve:Use neutral language that allows positive, negative and uncertain responses.

Mistake: Using overlapping response categories.

Why this is incorrect:Some participants may fit into more than one category.

How to improve:Ensure that every possible answer belongs to one category only.

Mistake: Leaving gaps in the response options.

Why this is incorrect:Participants may be unable to select an answer that represents their experience.

How to improve:Cover the full possible range and include “other” or “not applicable” where appropriate.

Mistake: Failing to label a numerical scale.

Why this is incorrect:Participants may not know what the lowest and highest numbers represent.

How to improve:Explain the meaning of each point or, at minimum, both ends of the scale clearly.

Mistake: Asking participants to remember an unrealistically long period.

Why this is incorrect:Their recall may be inaccurate.

How to improve:Use a recent and clearly defined time period.

Mistake: Including questions that do not address the research aim.

Why this is incorrect:Irrelevant items make the questionnaire longer without providing useful evidence.

How to improve:Explain how each answer will contribute to the investigation.

Mistake: Assuming anonymity guarantees truthful answers.

Why this is incorrect:Participants may still misunderstand, misremember or answer carelessly.

How to improve:Use anonymity alongside clear wording, appropriate administration and piloting.

Mistake: Designing the full questionnaire without piloting it.

Why this is incorrect:Unclear wording, missing options and practical problems may remain undiscovered.

How to improve:Test a draft on a small group and revise it before the main study.

Exam-Style Questions ✍️

Question 1

Which one of the following best describes a questionnaire?

A. A method in which researchers manipulate an independent variable

B. A self-report method consisting of written questions

C. A technique in which researchers watch behaviour

D. A method used only to produce qualitative data

[1 mark]

Question 2

Define an open question.

[2 marks]

Question 3

Explain one difference between open and closed questions.

[3 marks]

Question 4

A psychologist wants to investigate how many hours students spend revising psychology each week.

Write one suitable closed question that the psychologist could include in a questionnaire.

[3 marks]

Question 5

The following questionnaire item is intended to measure students’ revision habits:

Do you revise regularly?

Explain one problem with this item and suggest an improved version.

[4 marks]

Question 6

A researcher writes the following question:

How useful and enjoyable do you find homework?

Explain why this item is unsuitable and suggest how it could be improved.

[4 marks]

Question 7

A questionnaire asks:

How many hours do you revise each week?

• 0 to 2 hours

• 2 to 4 hours

• 4 to 6 hours

• More than 6 hours

Identify one problem with the response categories and rewrite them appropriately.

[4 marks]

Question 8

A psychologist wants to investigate students’ reasons for using online revision videos.

Write:

a) One suitable open question.

[2 marks]

b) One suitable closed question.

[3 marks]

Question 9

Explain why piloting a questionnaire may improve the quality of the data collected.

[4 marks]

Question 10

A researcher wants to investigate examination anxiety among A-Level students.

Design two suitable questionnaire items:

• One open question.

• One closed question with an appropriate response scale.

Briefly justify each item.

[8 marks]