Families, social change and the economy | AQA A-Level Sociology
Updated: 2 days ago
For Specification 7192
AQA A-Level Sociology | Free Revision Notes
Estimated study time:Â 60 minutes
This Families, social change and the economy A-Level Sociology revision page examines how family life is connected to wider changes in society and to economic organisation. AQA requires students to understand the relationship of the family to both social structure and social change, with particular reference to the economy and state policies.  Building on the relationship between families and wider society [Families and the social structure], this lesson explores why sociologists should not treat either families or the society around them as fixed.
Learning Objectives 🎯
By the end of this revision page, you should be able to:
Define social change and explain its relevance to the study of families.
Examine relationships between changes in wider society and changes in family life.
Explain relationships between families and the economy.
Compare structural and social action interpretations of family change.
Apply consensus and conflict interpretations to relationships between families and economic organisation.
Evaluate sociological explanations of family change.
Revision Notes đź“š
Families, social change and the economy A-Level Sociology revision overview
AQA requires students studying Families and Households to examine:
the relationship of the family to social structure and social change
this relationship with particular reference to the economy
the relationship between families and state policies.
This lesson concentrates on the first two of these requirements. Government intervention in family life [Families and state policies] is covered separately in the next lesson.
The main sociological point is that neither society nor family life should automatically be treated as unchanging. Family arrangements exist within a wider social context, and changes in one part of society may be connected to changes elsewhere.
What is social change?
Social change refers to significant changes in the organisation, relationships or patterns found within society over time.
When sociologists study family change, they are therefore interested in questions such as:
How do family and household arrangements change?
What wider social developments may be connected to these changes?
Does wider society cause changes in family life?
Can changes in family life also contribute to wider social change?
Do different groups experience change in the same way?
AQA treats social change as something that should be considered in relation to the wider structure of society, rather than simply as a collection of individual decisions.
Family change is part of wider social change
Family life can change at the same time as other parts of society.
The specification identifies a number of changing patterns that students study later in the Families and Households topic, including:
marriage
cohabitation
separation
divorce
childbearing
the life course
family and household structures.
These patterns are covered in detail in later lessons, including changing relationship patterns [Marriage and cohabitation], relationship breakdown [Separation and divorce] and changes across family lives [Childbearing and the life course].
For this lesson, the important point is that these changes can be considered in relation to changes in the wider society.
Avoid treating family change as isolated
A purely individual explanation might treat a change in family behaviour entirely as a result of personal choice.
A sociological explanation asks a wider question:
What features of society might make particular family patterns more or less likely?
This does not mean individual choices are irrelevant. Instead, Sociology examines the relationship between individual action and the wider social structure.
A person may make decisions about relationships and family life, but those decisions take place within a particular social and economic context.
A two-way relationship between families and society
It is useful to think of the relationship as reciprocal, meaning that influence may operate in both directions.
Wider social change may affect families
Changes in the organisation of society may create new circumstances for family members.
These may affect:
the opportunities available to individuals
the constraints people experience
expectations surrounding family life
relationships within households
patterns of family organisation.
Family change may also be socially significant
Changes in family life can themselves become part of wider social change.
If patterns of relationships, household organisation or family roles change, the organisation of society may also be affected.
This is why it is usually too simple to think in terms of a one-way process in which "society changes the family".
A stronger sociological explanation examines the relationship between the two.
The relationship between families and the economy
AQA specifically requires students to examine the family's relationship with the economy.
The economy refers broadly to the organisation of economic activity within society.
From a sociological perspective, the family and the economy should not automatically be treated as completely separate areas of social life.
Economic circumstances form part of the wider social environment in which families exist.
Economic organisation can provide opportunities and constraints
The relationship between families and the economy can be considered in terms of the opportunities and constraints experienced by family members.
Economic circumstances may influence the conditions under which people:
organise family life
divide responsibilities
make decisions
form households
experience relationships.
The key examination skill is not simply to state that "the economy affects families". You need to explain the relationship.
For example:
If wider economic conditions affect the opportunities available to family members, family decisions may partly reflect structural circumstances rather than purely individual preferences.
This is a sociological explanation because it connects private family decisions with a wider social structure.
Family life can also be related to economic organisation
The relationship does not have to be understood only as the economy influencing families.
Families are also part of the wider organisation of society.
A sociologist may therefore examine how patterns within family life are connected to economic arrangements.
The relationship can be summarised as:
economy ↔ family life
Rather than:
economy → family life
The first model allows for a more complex relationship in which different parts of society are interconnected.
Social structure and the economy
The economy is one part of the wider social structure.
This means the previous lesson on structural explanations of family life [Families and the social structure] provides an important foundation for this topic.
A structural explanation would emphasise that family life occurs within wider arrangements that individuals do not create entirely for themselves.
Applied to the economy, this means economic organisation may shape the circumstances in which families make decisions.
Structural explanations of family change
A structural approach gives particular importance to wider patterns and structures in society.
Applied to family change, it would suggest that changes in family life should be explained partly by examining changes elsewhere in society.
The basic reasoning is:
Families exist within wider social structures.
Social structures can change.
Changes in those structures may alter the circumstances in which families operate.
Patterns of family life may therefore change in response.
This approach encourages students to look beyond individual behaviour.
Strengths of structural explanations
Structural explanations are useful because they recognise that large numbers of individuals may face similar wider conditions.
If many families experience the same social or economic changes, wider structures may help explain why broader patterns emerge.
This can therefore help sociologists explain social patterns, rather than treating every family decision as unrelated to every other one.
Structural approaches also connect directly with the AQA requirement that students understand the significance of social structure throughout their study of Sociology.
Limitations of structural explanations
A strongly structural explanation may give too little attention to individual action.
People do not necessarily respond in identical ways to the same social circumstances.
Different individuals may:
interpret situations differently
make different choices
negotiate relationships differently
react differently to similar constraints.
This provides an important evaluation point.
A structural explanation may identify the circumstances surrounding family change, but this does not automatically mean those circumstances determine exactly what every person will do.
Social action explanations of family change
A social action approach gives greater importance to individuals, their actions and the meanings they attach to situations.
Applied to family change, this approach would emphasise that people actively participate in creating and changing their relationships.
Rather than seeing family members simply as shaped by social structures, social action approaches draw attention to how they:
interpret their circumstances
interact with others
negotiate relationships
make choices.
You can develop this theoretical distinction further through social action approaches to society [Social action theories].
Structure and action together
A particularly useful way to evaluate explanations of family change is to avoid assuming that structure and action must always be completely separate.
Individuals may make choices, but their choices take place within wider circumstances.
A sociological explanation might therefore recognise both:
Structural influences
Wider social and economic conditions can shape people's opportunities and constraints.
Social action
People interpret these circumstances and may respond to them in different ways.
đź“Ś Exam tip:Â This provides a useful analytical distinction. Instead of saying "structural theories are wrong because people have free choice", explain that individual action may occur within structural circumstances.
Consensus interpretations of families and the economy
AQA requires students to understand the significance of consensus and conflict throughout Sociology.
A consensus interpretation emphasises:
shared interests
cooperation
social order
relationships between different parts of society.
Applied to families and the economy, a consensus approach would be interested in how these parts of society relate to one another as part of a wider social system.
The focus would be on connection and coordination rather than primarily on inequality.
Evaluating a consensus interpretation
A consensus approach can be useful because it draws attention to the fact that different parts of society may be interconnected.
Family life does not exist separately from the economic organisation of society.
However, a conflict approach may question whether relationships between families and the economy benefit all people equally.
This is particularly important because social differentiation, power and stratification is one of AQA's core themes.
Conflict interpretations of families and the economy
A conflict interpretation focuses on:
inequalities
differences of interest
power
social divisions.
Applied to the relationship between families and the economy, this encourages sociologists to ask:
Do economic conditions affect all families equally?
Do all members of the same family experience economic arrangements in the same way?
Are opportunities and constraints distributed equally?
Who has greater power within social and family relationships?
Conflict approaches therefore challenge explanations that treat either "the family" or "society" as if all individuals necessarily share the same interests.
Economic relationships and power
The specification requires power and stratification to run throughout the course.
This means an explanation of families and the economy can be strengthened by considering whether the relationship involves unequal power.
For example, if family members occupy different positions or have different opportunities, they may experience the relationship between family life and wider economic conditions differently.
This prepares you for later study of inequalities in family decision-making and relationships [Power relationships within families].
Do all families experience social change in the same way?
No sociological explanation of family change should automatically assume that all families are identical.
AQA requires students to examine the diversity of contemporary family and household structures.
This creates an important evaluation question:
Can one explanation of social change apply equally to every family and household?
Different families may occupy different positions within society and may respond differently to the same wider conditions.
This issue is developed directly in contemporary forms of family life [Family and household diversity].
Family diversity as an evaluation point
Suppose an explanation claims that one change in wider society produces the same change in every family.
That claim may be too deterministic.
A stronger evaluation would consider whether:
different household structures experience change differently
individuals respond differently
power relationships affect responses
wider social inequalities shape experiences.
The key is not to assume diversity automatically disproves a structural explanation.
Instead, diversity may show that structural influences are experienced differently.
Social differentiation and family change
AQA's core theme of social differentiation, power and stratification is particularly useful when evaluating family change.
Social differentiation draws attention to differences between social groups.
When examining social or economic change, sociologists can therefore consider whether:
all social groups experience the same changes
the consequences of change are evenly distributed
different groups have equal opportunities
inequalities affect family experiences.
This helps transform a descriptive answer into a sociological one.
Socialisation, culture and identity
The other AQA core theme is socialisation, culture and identity.
Changes in society may also be connected to changes in:
expectations
identities
relationships
understandings of family life.
The specification does not treat families purely as economic arrangements. Families are connected to both of AQA's core themes.
A strong answer can therefore recognise that family change may involve both:
material and structural circumstances
cultural meanings and identities.
Relationships between economic change and family roles
The relationship between economic organisation and family life may also be relevant when considering roles within households.
Changes in wider circumstances can provide a context in which relationships and responsibilities are organised and negotiated.
However, the detailed examination of these relationships belongs in the division of responsibilities within families [Gender roles and domestic labour].
For this lesson, the main point is that the organisation of family roles should not necessarily be understood separately from wider social and economic conditions.
Family change and relationship patterns
AQA requires students to study changing patterns of:
marriage
cohabitation
separation
divorce
childbearing.
These later topics provide evidence of family change that can be connected back to the broader framework developed here.
For example, when studying a changing pattern, ask:
What has changed?
What sociological explanations are offered?
Does the explanation emphasise social structure or individual action?
Does it emphasise consensus or conflict?
How might wider social or economic change be relevant?
Does the explanation account for diversity?
This turns factual knowledge about changing patterns into sociological analysis.
Social change and the life course
AQA also requires students to consider the life course.
The life course directs attention to people's lives and relationships over time.
This means family change can be considered at more than one level:
Level | Focus |
Societal change | Changes in wider patterns and social structures |
Family change | Changes in family and household arrangements |
Individual lives | Changes experienced as people move through their lives |
These levels may be connected rather than independent.
The individual dimension is developed further in family relationships across people's lives [Childbearing and the life course].
The sociology of personal life
AQA also includes the sociology of personal life within the study of changing family patterns.
This later topic places particular importance on understanding people's personal relationships rather than assuming one fixed model of family life.
It provides a useful connection with social action because it draws attention to the meanings and relationships experienced by individuals.
You will examine this directly in personal relationships and family life [The sociology of personal life].
Social change does not necessarily mean complete replacement
A common misunderstanding is to assume that "family change" means one family form disappears and another completely replaces it.
Social change is more complex.
Patterns can:
change gradually
exist alongside one another
affect some groups more than others
involve both continuity and change.
Therefore, evaluation should consider not only whether change has occurred but also:
its extent
who experiences it
how it is explained
whether older patterns continue alongside newer ones.
Change and continuity
Change and continuity should be considered together.
If evidence shows that some aspects of family life have changed, this does not automatically prove that every aspect has changed.
Similarly, the continuation of some patterns does not mean that family life as a whole is unchanged.
A sophisticated sociological explanation may therefore recognise both.
đź“Ś Exam technique:Â Avoid absolute statements such as "families have completely changed" unless the evidence provided actually supports that conclusion.
Correlation is not automatically causation
When analysing family change, be careful about assuming that two changes occurring at the same time prove that one caused the other.
For example, if a family pattern and an economic pattern both change, a sociologist still needs to explain the connection between them.
A strong answer therefore develops the mechanism:
Wider social change altered particular circumstances, which then affected the opportunities, constraints or decisions surrounding family life.
This is stronger than simply saying:
"The economy changed, so families changed."
Explaining rather than describing change
Consider the difference between these two responses.
Description:
Family patterns can change when society changes.
This identifies a relationship but does not explain it.
Explanation:
Family patterns may change because wider social and economic developments alter the circumstances in which family members make decisions. This suggests that apparently personal choices can partly reflect structural conditions.
The second answer develops a sociological relationship.
Applying structural explanations
Suppose an exam item states that changing economic circumstances have altered the opportunities available to households.
A structural response could argue that:
individual family behaviour occurs within wider circumstances
economic organisation can create opportunities and constraints
changes in wider structures may therefore contribute to family change.
To gain application marks, use the specific material supplied in the item rather than reproducing a memorised paragraph on structural theory.
Applying social action explanations
If the same item also states that different families respond differently to economic conditions, a social action explanation might emphasise:
individual interpretation
negotiation
choices
different responses to similar circumstances.
The contrast can then become analytical:
Structural explanations help explain why many families experience similar external pressures, while social action approaches help explain why individuals do not necessarily respond to those pressures in identical ways.
Applying consensus and conflict
A consensus interpretation may emphasise relationships and cooperation between different parts of society.
A conflict interpretation may instead ask whether:
different groups are affected differently
some family members possess greater power
wider inequalities influence family experiences.
The strongest answers do not simply label an argument "consensus" or "conflict". They explain why the argument fits the perspective.
Comparing explanations of family change
Explanation | Main emphasis | Useful for explaining | Possible limitation |
Structural | Wider social conditions | Broad patterns of family change | May underestimate individual action |
Social action | Meanings and individual actions | Different responses to similar circumstances | May underestimate wider structural constraints |
Consensus | Cooperation and social order | Relationships between different parts of society | May understate inequalities and competing interests |
Conflict | Power and inequality | Unequal experiences of change | May understate cooperation and shared interests |
These perspectives are not four separate explanations of a specific family trend. They are broader ways of interpreting sociological relationships.
Evaluating explanations of family change
Evaluation should go beyond saying one theory is "better".
Ask specific questions about each explanation.
Does it explain the pattern?
An explanation should account for why a particular family change occurs.
Simply identifying wider social change is not enough unless the connection is explained.
Does it explain differences?
If different families respond differently, an explanation should be capable of accounting for this variation.
This may strengthen the case for including social action alongside structural explanations.
Does it recognise power?
An explanation that treats families as unified groups may overlook differences between members.
Conflict approaches remind sociologists to consider power and inequality.
Does it recognise social structure?
An explanation focused entirely on individual choice may fail to explain why broader social patterns exist.
Structural approaches remind sociologists that individuals make decisions within social circumstances.
Does it explain both change and continuity?
An explanation should not automatically assume that everything changes at once.
It may need to account for the continuation of some patterns alongside the development of others.
Avoiding economic determinism
A structural explanation of family change can become too simplistic if it suggests that the economy automatically determines every feature of family life.
That interpretation leaves little room for:
culture
identity
social action
diversity
different responses.
A stronger sociological argument can recognise the significance of economic circumstances while also considering other features of social life included within AQA's core themes.
Avoiding an individualistic explanation
The opposite problem occurs when family change is explained entirely in terms of personal decisions.
If large-scale patterns change, Sociology asks whether wider social circumstances help explain why.
This is why the relationship between structure and action is so important.
Neither treating individuals as completely controlled by society nor treating them as completely independent of society provides a complete account of the specification's emphasis on social structure and social action.
The economy is only part of the explanation
AQA gives particular reference to the economy, but it also explicitly identifies state policies as part of the relationship between family and social structure.
Students should therefore avoid reducing family change to a single cause.
The next lesson on the influence of government action [Families and state policies] adds another dimension to the relationship between family life and wider society.
Contemporary UK society
AQA states that the central focus of study should be UK society today, while comparative dimensions can be considered where relevant.
When discussing family change, therefore:
keep the social context clear
avoid assuming that the same patterns exist everywhere
avoid treating a historical pattern as automatically applicable to contemporary society
connect explanations to the society under consideration.
Bringing the topic together
The central relationship can be represented as:
wider social and economic change ⇄ family life and relationships
A structural approach gives greater weight to the left-hand side, examining the wider circumstances that shape family life.
A social action approach draws greater attention to how people interpret and respond to those circumstances.
Consensus and conflict interpretations then provide different ways of understanding the relationships involved.
This gives you a framework for analysing the specific patterns of family change studied throughout the rest of Families and Households.
Building an examination argument đź§
AQA assesses students through three assessment objectives:
AO1:Â knowledge and understanding of sociological theories, concepts and evidence
AO2:Â application of sociological knowledge to issues
AO3:Â analysis and evaluation, including presenting arguments, making judgements and drawing conclusions.
For a question about families, social change and the economy, a developed argument could:
Establish that families exist within wider social structures.
Explain how social change can create changing circumstances for families.
Develop the relationship between families and the economy.
Apply a structural interpretation.
Contrast this with a social action interpretation.
Consider consensus and conflict interpretations.
Evaluate whether wider structural explanations account adequately for diversity and individual action.
Reach a reasoned judgement about the relationship between social change and family change.
📌 Exam tip: A high-quality answer should explain how wider change is connected to family change. Simply writing that "society has changed" is descriptive rather than analytical.
Key Words 🔑
Key word | Student-friendly definition | How it may be used in an exam |
Social change | Changes in social organisation, relationships or patterns over time. | Explain why family patterns should not be treated as fixed. |
Economy | The organisation of economic activity within society. | Explain the relationship between family life and wider economic circumstances. |
Social structure | The organised patterns and relationships that make up wider society. | Link family changes to wider structural conditions. |
Structural theory | An approach giving particular importance to wider social structures in explaining social life. | Explain broad patterns of family change. |
Social action | An approach emphasising people's actions and the meanings they give to social situations. | Evaluate structural explanations by considering different individual responses. |
Consensus | An interpretation emphasising cooperation, shared interests and social order. | Analyse relationships between families and other parts of society. |
Conflict | An interpretation emphasising inequality, power and different interests. | Evaluate whether changes affect all families and family members equally. |
Social differentiation | Differences between individuals or social groups within society. | Examine whether different groups experience social and economic change differently. |
Family diversity | Variation in contemporary family and household structures. | Evaluate claims that one explanation applies to every family. |
Life course | The changing stages and relationships experienced across people's lives. | Connect wider social change with changes in individual and family lives. |
Common Mistakes ⚠️
Mistake: Saying "the economy causes family change" without explaining how
Why this is incorrect: This states a relationship but does not analyse it. Sociology requires you to explain the processes connecting wider social circumstances and family life.
How to improve: Identify the relevant structural circumstances and explain how they might alter opportunities, constraints or decisions within family life.
Mistake: Treating social change and family change as the same thing
Why this is incorrect: Family change is one aspect of wider social change. Social change can involve broader changes in social structures and relationships.
How to improve: Keep the levels clear. Explain how wider social change may be connected to specific changes in families or households.
Mistake: Assuming everyone responds to social change identically
Why this is incorrect: Individuals and families may interpret or respond to similar circumstances differently.
How to improve: Use social action approaches to evaluate strongly structural explanations and consider family diversity.
Mistake: Explaining family change entirely through individual choice
Why this is incorrect: This ignores AQA's requirement to understand the family's relationship with social structure and the economy.
How to improve: Ask what wider circumstances may shape the choices available to individuals.
Mistake: Treating structural and consensus theories as the same thing
Why this is incorrect: A structural theory emphasises wider social structure. A consensus interpretation emphasises agreement and social order.
How to improve:
Remember the two separate debates:
structure versus social action
consensus versus conflict.
Mistake: Assuming change means all previous patterns disappear
Why this is incorrect: Social change can exist alongside continuity.
How to improve: Evaluate both the extent of change and the evidence of continuing patterns.
Mistake: Ignoring power and inequality
Why this is incorrect: AQA requires social differentiation, power and stratification to be applied throughout the course.
How to improve: Ask whether different social groups or family members experience wider social and economic change in the same way.
Exam-Style Questions ✍️
Questions
1. Which one of the following refers to changes in patterns and relationships within society over time?
A. Social action
B. Social change
C. Socialisation
D. Stratification
[1 mark]
2. Define the term social change.
[2 marks]
3. Explain one way in which the study of family change can be linked to the economy.
[4 marks]
4. Explain two reasons why a structural explanation may be useful when studying family change.
[6 marks]
5. Read Item A and answer the question that follows.
Item A
Some sociologists argue that changes in family life should be understood in relation to wider changes in society. Economic conditions may alter the opportunities and constraints experienced by family members. However, people living in similar circumstances do not necessarily make the same decisions about their relationships and family lives.
Using material from Item A, analyse two ways in which structural and social action approaches may give different explanations of family change.
[10 marks]
6. Read Item B and answer the question that follows.
Item B
Family life is connected to the wider organisation of society. Some sociologists emphasise cooperation and the relationship between different parts of society. Others argue that social and economic change may have unequal consequences and that different groups do not necessarily have the same interests.
Using material from Item B and your knowledge, analyse two differences between consensus and conflict interpretations of the relationship between families and the economy.
[10 marks]
7. Explain two reasons why changes in wider society may not produce identical changes in every family.
[6 marks]
8. Evaluate sociological explanations of the relationship between family change and wider social and economic change.
[20 marks]
Answers and indicative mark scheme
Question 1
Answer: B. Social change
Award 1 mark for the correct answer.
Question 2
Award up to 2 marks for an answer recognising that:
social change involves change in patterns, relationships or organisation within society
this occurs over time.
Question 3
Award up to 4 marks for a developed explanation.
Indicative content may include:
families exist within wider economic circumstances
changes in economic organisation may affect opportunities or constraints experienced by families
family decisions may therefore partly reflect wider structural circumstances rather than only personal preferences.
A stronger answer explains the relationship rather than simply stating that the economy "affects families".
Question 4
Award up to 3 marks for each developed reason.
Possible answers include:
Structural explanations connect family behaviour with wider social circumstances.
They can help explain why wider patterns of family change occur rather than treating every decision as unrelated.
They recognise that many families may experience similar social or economic conditions.
They connect family change to the wider organisation of society.
Question 5
A strong response should use Item A directly.
Indicative content:
Structural explanations
emphasise wider social conditions
draw attention to economic opportunities and constraints
can explain why broad social patterns may change.
Social action explanations
emphasise individual meanings and actions
recognise that people in similar circumstances may respond differently
give family members a more active role in creating relationships.
Analysis
Strong responses may argue that structural approaches can explain the common circumstances facing individuals, while social action approaches may better explain variation in their responses.
Question 6
Indicative content:
Consensus
emphasises cooperation and social order
considers relationships between different parts of society
may focus on how families and the economy are interconnected.
Conflict
emphasises inequality and different interests
questions whether economic change affects everyone equally
draws attention to power and stratification.
Analysis
Higher-level responses should compare the two perspectives directly and use the specific contrast provided in Item B.
Question 7
Award up to 3 marks for each developed reason.
Possible answers include:
People may interpret and respond to the same structural circumstances differently.
Contemporary families and households are diverse.
Different groups may occupy different positions within wider structures.
Power and inequality may influence how social or economic change is experienced.
Social change may alter opportunities without determining exactly how individuals act.
Question 8
A strong extended response should combine knowledge, application, analysis and evaluation.
Indicative AO1 content
Students may explain:
social change
social structure
the relationship between families and the economy
structural explanations
social action explanations
consensus and conflict interpretations
power and stratification
family diversity.
Indicative analysis and evaluation
Developed answers might consider that:
Structural explanations are useful because family life exists within wider social and economic circumstances.
Wider change can alter the opportunities and constraints experienced by family members.
Structural explanations can account for broad social patterns rather than reducing change to unrelated individual choices.
However, they may become too deterministic if they imply that people automatically respond in the same way.
Social action approaches recognise that individuals interpret and respond to circumstances differently.
However, an excessive focus on personal choice may underestimate structural constraints.
Consensus interpretations highlight connections and cooperation between different parts of society.
Conflict interpretations draw attention to unequal effects, different interests and power.
Family diversity suggests that wider change may not affect every family or household identically.
The relationship between social change, economic organisation and family life may be reciprocal rather than simply one-directional.
Judgement
A well-supported conclusion could argue that family change cannot be understood fully without examining wider social and economic conditions. However, these conditions do not automatically determine family behaviour. The strongest explanation therefore recognises the importance of social structure while also considering social action, diversity, power and differences in how change is experienced.
The next step is to examine another direct relationship identified by the specification, how government action can influence family life [Families and state policies].
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