Non-governmental organisations | AQA A-Level Sociology
Updated: 5 days ago
For Specification 7192
AQA A-Level Sociology | Free Revision Notes
Estimated study time: 75 minutes
Non-governmental organisations A-Level Sociology revision examines how organisations outside government can contribute to development at both local and global levels. AQA requires students to understand the role of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) alongside transnational corporations and international agencies in local and global development strategies. NGOs may provide education, healthcare and support for women, and their grassroots approach may help them respond closely to local needs. However, funding, donor priorities and the marginalisation of local groups can limit their effectiveness.
Learning Objectives 🎯
By the end of this revision page, you should be able to:
Define non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and explain their role in development.
Explain how NGOs may contribute to development through health, education and support for women and girls.
Examine grassroots and people-centred development as approaches associated with NGO activity.
Analyse why NGOs may sometimes respond more effectively to local needs than governments.
Explain limitations on NGOs, including funding, donor influence and the possible exclusion of local groups from decision making.
Evaluate the extent to which NGOs make an effective contribution to local and global development.
Revision Notes 📚
Non-governmental organisations A-Level Sociology revision: what are NGOs?
A non-governmental organisation (NGO) is an organisation that operates separately from government and may become involved in development activities.
AQA explicitly requires students to understand the role of NGOs in local and global strategies for development.
AQA assessment materials use organisations such as:
Oxfam
Save the Children
Médecins Sans Frontières
as examples of NGOs involved in development.
NGOs can operate in many locations and may become involved in areas such as:
education
healthcare
women's health
gender equality
community development
aid
Their role therefore connects with several later Global Development lessons, including aid and development [Aid and development], employment and education [Employment and education], health and demographic change [Health and demographic change] and gender and development [Gender and development].
NGOs within development strategies
AQA places NGOs alongside:
transnational corporations
international agencies
as organisations involved in local and global development strategies.
However, they can operate differently.
A TNC is primarily a corporation operating across national boundaries, while NGOs may organise development projects based on social needs.
This means NGOs may become particularly important where development involves:
local participation
healthcare
education
gender equality
small-scale or community projects
Their role can therefore be compared with transnational corporations [Transnational corporations] and, in the next lesson, international agencies [International agencies].
Local development
At a local level, NGOs may work closely with communities and respond to specific needs.
The AQA specimen mark scheme recognises knowledge of local needs through the involvement of local people as a reason why NGOs may sometimes be more effective than government projects.
This can create a development process such as:
local people involved → local needs identified → NGO project targeted at those needs → resources directed towards a specific problem
This differs from a large programme designed with limited knowledge of local conditions.
Global development
NGOs may also operate internationally.
AQA's 2022 mark scheme specifically recognises that international NGOs such as Médecins Sans Frontières can contribute to improved health in developing countries.
NGOs can therefore link:
resources gathered internationally
global development concerns
local projects and communities
This illustrates how development increasingly involves organisations operating across national boundaries.
Grassroots development
Grassroots development places importance on development from within communities rather than relying entirely on large-scale decisions imposed from above.
AQA explicitly recognises grassroots development in its Global Development mark schemes, including in relation to NGOs and development.
A grassroots approach may involve:
identifying needs within a community
involving local people
designing projects around those needs
directing resources towards local priorities
involving the community in development
This contrasts with a completely top-down approach in which priorities are mainly determined by governments or large external organisations.
People-centred development
Closely related to grassroots development is people-centred development.
AQA's 2021 NGO mark scheme specifically identifies people-centred and grassroots development as relevant material.
People-centred development places the experiences and needs of people at the centre of development rather than judging success only through large-scale economic growth.
This is important because development can include:
health
education
gender equality
living conditions
as well as economic growth.
This builds on the broader debate examined in development and underdevelopment [Development and underdevelopment].
Why local involvement may matter
Local participation may make an NGO project more effective because people living within a community may have detailed knowledge of:
their needs
existing problems
local priorities
barriers to development
The AQA specimen mark scheme identifies NGO knowledge of local needs through involvement of local people as an important advantage.
The analytical chain is:
local involvement → better understanding of need → more appropriately targeted project → greater potential development impact
However, this advantage depends on whether local people genuinely influence the project.
An NGO can claim to work locally while still making decisions without sufficiently representing all parts of the community.
NGOs and flexibility
Another possible advantage is flexibility.
AQA's specimen mark scheme identifies the relative flexibility of response of NGOs as one possible reason they may be more effective than governments.
A smaller or more flexible organisation may be able to adapt its response to the particular circumstances of a community.
This can be useful where:
needs differ between areas
circumstances change rapidly
a standardised response would not fit local conditions
The argument is:
greater flexibility → project can be adapted → closer match with local circumstances → potentially more effective development
Mobilising resources quickly
AQA also recognises NGOs' ability to mobilise resources quickly.
A large government project may involve extensive administrative or political processes.
An NGO may sometimes be able to respond more rapidly.
This may be particularly important where people require immediate support.
However, the ability to respond quickly can depend on the NGO having sufficient:
funding
staff
resources
public or media support
Speed therefore does not guarantee that an NGO will have the capacity for a large or sustained intervention.
NGOs and government political agendas
The AQA specimen mark scheme also identifies the political agendas of governments as a possible obstacle to effective development projects.
Government development programmes may be influenced by wider political priorities.
NGOs may sometimes have greater independence from these agendas.
The possible argument is:
government priorities influence development project → local needs receive less attention
whereas:
NGO relative independence → greater focus on identified community need
This can support the claim that NGOs may sometimes be more responsive than governments.
Relative independence
AQA specifically recognises the relative independence of NGOs, compared with the possibility of government projects becoming caught up in local power structures.
This could allow some NGOs to direct assistance towards groups whose needs might otherwise receive less attention.
However, the word relative is important.
NGOs are not necessarily completely independent.
Their decisions may still be shaped by:
funding
donors
governments
organisational priorities
This becomes a major evaluation point.
Funding and NGO effectiveness
NGOs need resources in order to operate.
AQA's specimen mark scheme explicitly identifies:
voluntary or charitable status
access to funds
media profile
as factors that may affect NGO effectiveness.
An NGO may have strong local knowledge but still be unable to implement a large or long-term project if funding is limited.
This gives a useful evaluative chain:
limited funding → fewer resources available → smaller scale or shorter project → reduced capacity to address development problems
Therefore, local responsiveness is only one part of effectiveness.
Media profile and resources
An NGO's media profile may influence its ability to attract resources.
AQA explicitly recognises media profile when evaluating why NGOs may be effective.
This creates a potential inequality between organisations.
An NGO that attracts greater attention may gain greater access to funding, while another organisation addressing a less visible issue may have fewer resources.
The broader point is that NGO resources are not automatically determined by the seriousness of the development problem alone.
Donor influence
AQA's 2021 mark scheme recognises that NGOs may respond to the demands of donors and/or governments.
This challenges the assumption that NGOs always act entirely according to local priorities.
If a donor provides funding for a particular type of project, this may influence:
which problems receive attention
how resources are allocated
which groups benefit
what outcomes are prioritised
The potential problem is:
dependence on donor funding → donor priorities influence project → local priorities may receive less attention
This can limit genuine people-centred development.
NGOs and local power
Development projects operate within existing social relationships.
Some groups may have more influence than others.
If an NGO works with a community without carefully examining inequalities within it, the project may reproduce existing patterns of power rather than challenge them.
AQA's gender-focused mark scheme is particularly important here because it recognises the possible marginalisation of women in NGO projects.
This means local participation is not enough by itself.
A key question is:
Which local people are participating and whose voices shape the project?
NGOs and gender inequality
AQA directly assessed the relationship between NGOs and gender inequalities in developing countries in 2021.
The mark scheme makes clear that NGOs may affect gender inequality in either direction.
They may:
reduce gender inequality through projects supporting women and girls
increase or reproduce gender inequality where projects fail to take account of women's views or needs
This is an excellent example of why NGO involvement cannot simply be assumed to promote development.
Supporting girls' education
NGOs may contribute to development by supporting education for girls.
AQA's 2021 mark scheme explicitly identifies NGO support for girls' education as one possible way NGOs may reduce gender inequality.
The potential chain is:
NGO support for girls' education → greater educational access → reduction in educational gender inequality → wider development opportunities
AQA's 2025 mark scheme also recognises that aid through NGOs may support the growth of education in developing countries.
This creates a strong link to employment and education [Employment and education].
NGOs and education more broadly
NGOs may help support the development of education.
AQA's 2025 Global Development mark scheme specifically lists more aid through NGOs to support growth of education in developing countries.
Education may contribute to development through wider opportunities and the development of knowledge and skills.
AQA also recognises the role of education in:
reducing gender inequalities
increasing human capital
addressing health inequalities
contributing to modernisation
Therefore, NGO educational projects may have consequences beyond schooling itself.
NGOs and health
NGOs may also contribute to development through healthcare.
AQA's 2022 mark scheme identifies international NGOs such as Médecins Sans Frontières as contributing to improved health.
Possible NGO contributions may therefore include support connected to:
healthcare
medicines
health knowledge
responses to health problems
AQA's 2021 NGO mark scheme also identifies women's healthcare and reproductive rights as relevant areas.
Health is therefore one major route through which NGOs may contribute to broader development.
Women's healthcare
NGO projects may specifically address women's health needs.
AQA identifies:
reproductive rights
women's healthcare
as relevant to the influence of NGOs on gender inequalities.
This matters because development may be experienced differently according to gender.
A project that improves women's access to healthcare may therefore contribute both to:
health development
reduction in gender inequality
This connection is developed further in health and demographic change [Health and demographic change] and gender and development [Gender and development].
Representation within NGOs
The people who work for and make decisions within an NGO can also affect its contribution to development.
AQA's 2021 mark scheme specifically identifies the role of men and women as staff and in decision making in NGOs.
This means sociologists can examine not only what an NGO does but also how decisions are made.
If women are excluded from important decisions, a project may fail to recognise their needs.
Conversely, greater representation may help projects address gender inequalities more effectively.
Marginalisation of women
AQA explicitly identifies the marginalisation of women in NGO projects as relevant material.
This creates an important feminist evaluation.
An NGO may appear to be supporting community development while failing to involve women equally.
The project could then reproduce existing patriarchal relationships rather than challenge them.
The analytical chain is:
existing gender inequalities → women have less influence in project → their priorities receive less attention → NGO intervention may reproduce gender inequality
Feminist interpretations of NGOs
A feminist interpretation focuses attention on whether development benefits women as well as men.
A feminist evaluation can ask:
Are women represented in decision making?
Does the project respond to women's needs?
Does it improve access to education or healthcare?
Does it challenge or reproduce gender inequality?
AQA's own assessment materials directly support both positive and critical feminist interpretations of NGO activity.
This makes gender one of the strongest ways to evaluate NGO effectiveness.
Community projects and gender
AQA also recognises that community projects run by NGOs are likely to involve both sexes.
This may enable development strategies to involve women as well as men.
However, involvement itself does not automatically mean equal influence.
A strong sociological answer distinguishes between:
being included in a project
having genuine decision-making power within that project
This is exactly the kind of distinction that improves evaluation.
NGOs and aid
Much NGO activity involves aid.
AQA's 2020 Global Development mark scheme identifies NGOs as part of the sociological debate about aid, alongside:
development aid
emergency aid
grassroots development
dependency
modernisation
gender inequalities
transparency and accountability
NGOs should therefore not be studied in complete isolation from aid and development [Aid and development].
The next stage of revision will examine whether aid itself supports development or creates problems.
Emergency and development roles
AQA distinguishes emergency aid and development aid within its assessment materials.
NGOs may therefore operate in contexts where immediate assistance is required, as well as through longer-term development projects.
Their ability to mobilise resources quickly can be particularly relevant to urgent responses.
Grassroots and people-centred approaches, by contrast, may be especially relevant to longer-term projects based on local needs.
NGOs and globalisation
NGOs can also be understood as part of increasing global interconnectedness.
Resources, workers and organisational activities may cross national borders.
AQA's 2022 assessment recognises international NGO involvement as one way in which globalisation may affect health in developing countries.
AQA's 2025 assessment likewise recognises NGO aid as one way globalisation may affect education.
NGOs therefore form part of the networks connecting societies studied in globalisation, political and economic relationships [Globalisation, political and economic relationships].
NGOs compared with governments
AQA's specimen paper explicitly raises the argument that NGOs may sometimes be more effective than governments in helping development.
Possible NGO advantages recognised by the mark scheme include:
Possible NGO advantage | Why it may matter |
Flexibility | Projects may be adapted to particular needs and circumstances. |
Rapid mobilisation | Resources may sometimes be deployed quickly. |
Local knowledge | Involvement of local people may help identify relevant needs. |
Relative independence | NGOs may be less constrained by some government political agendas or local power structures. |
Long-term experience | NGOs operating in many locations may build experience of development work. |
However, these advantages are not guaranteed.
Limitations compared with governments
The specimen mark scheme also provides important limitations.
NGO effectiveness may depend on:
voluntary or charitable status
access to funds
media profile
Governments may possess resources and authority on a scale that individual NGOs do not.
Therefore, it would be incorrect to conclude that NGOs are always more effective than governments.
A better judgement is that their relative effectiveness depends on:
the scale of the problem
access to funding
local knowledge
political conditions
the type of intervention required
Scale
One important issue is scale.
A locally focused NGO project may understand a community extremely well.
However, a problem affecting an entire society may require resources beyond those available to a single voluntary organisation.
This means there can be a trade-off:
small/local organisation → responsiveness and flexibility
but potentially:
large development problem → need for extensive resources and coordination
AQA's specimen material supports evaluation through NGOs' access to funds and voluntary or charitable status.
Local knowledge versus national capacity
This creates a useful comparison:
NGO strength | Possible limitation |
Can possess detailed knowledge of local needs. | May lack resources for national-scale intervention. |
Can involve local people. | Not every local group may be represented equally. |
Can be flexible. | Funding may be uncertain. |
Can sometimes respond quickly. | Long-term capacity may depend on continued resources. |
May have relative political independence. | Donor and government priorities may still influence projects. |
This balanced comparison is much stronger than saying either NGOs or governments are always superior.
Donor priorities versus community priorities
A major tension in NGO development is the relationship between those who fund projects and those who experience them.
AQA recognises that NGOs may respond to donor demands.
This can potentially conflict with grassroots development.
A genuinely grassroots model would suggest:
local needs → project priorities
A donor-driven model might instead become:
funding priorities → project priorities → local community adapts to available funding
This provides a powerful evaluation of claims that NGO development is always people-centred.
Accountability
AQA's assessment materials recognise transparency and accountability within debates surrounding aid and NGOs.
Accountability concerns who an organisation is answerable to for its decisions and activities.
For an NGO, this creates questions such as:
Is the organisation primarily accountable to donors?
Is it accountable to local communities?
Who decides whether a project has been successful?
These questions matter because development involves choices over whose needs and priorities should count.
NGO effectiveness is not uniform
AQA's 2021 mark scheme refers to analysis of different types of NGOs.
This means students should avoid treating every NGO as identical.
NGOs may differ in:
resources
size
aims
location
projects
funding
relationship with governments and donors
As a result, a criticism that applies to one organisation or type of project cannot automatically be generalised to all NGOs.
Assessing NGO success
NGO effectiveness can be evaluated using several questions.
1. Does the project meet local needs?
Local involvement may increase effectiveness, but only if local voices genuinely shape decisions.
2. Are sufficient resources available?
An excellent project design may still have limited impact without adequate funding.
3. Who participates?
A project may reinforce inequalities if women or other groups are marginalised.
4. Who sets the priorities?
Local people, governments and donors may have different priorities.
5. Is the impact sustainable?
Development should be judged by what is achieved over time rather than simply whether resources were initially delivered.
NGOs and modernisation
A modernisation interpretation can emphasise the contribution NGOs make to areas associated with development, such as:
education
healthcare
reducing gender inequalities
AQA's Global Development materials recognise modernisation alongside NGOs in broader debates about development.
For example:
NGO supports education → skills and opportunities increase → development may accelerate
or:
NGO improves healthcare → health outcomes improve → wider human development increases
From this perspective, NGOs may help societies overcome barriers to development.
Evaluating a modernisation interpretation
The limitation is that development projects may not simply introduce solutions into otherwise passive communities.
A focus only on delivering services may overlook:
existing inequalities
local priorities
donor power
gender relations
dependency
People-centred approaches therefore emphasise participation rather than viewing communities simply as recipients of development.
NGOs and dependency perspectives
Dependency approaches question unequal relationships in the global development process.
Within debates about aid, AQA recognises both:
NGOs
dependency
as relevant concepts.
A dependency-based criticism can focus on the extent to which organisations in developing societies remain reliant on resources and priorities originating elsewhere.
This is especially relevant where NGO projects respond strongly to donor priorities.
However, NGOs should not automatically be treated as creating dependency.
Grassroots and people-centred development may instead be used to increase local involvement.
NGOs and grassroots alternatives
Grassroots development can challenge models in which development is imposed from outside.
The contrast is:
Top-down development | Grassroots / people-centred development |
Priorities may be decided by large organisations or governments. | Local people may play a greater role in identifying needs. |
Projects may operate at a large scale. | Projects may be closely adapted to local circumstances. |
Local knowledge may receive less emphasis. | Community knowledge is central. |
Greater resources may be available. | Resources may be more limited. |
NGOs can support grassroots development, but only where local involvement is meaningful.
NGOs and gender: a particularly useful evaluation
Gender demonstrates particularly clearly why the effect of an NGO depends on how a project is organised.
NGOs may reduce gender inequality by:
supporting girls' education
supporting women's healthcare
addressing reproductive rights
involving women in community projects
including women in staffing and decision making
NGOs may reproduce inequality by:
marginalising women
failing to understand women's needs
allowing existing patriarchal relations to shape projects
giving women limited influence in decision making
All of these arguments are grounded in AQA's 2021 NGO mark scheme.
NGOs and education: a wider development effect
NGO support for education may have consequences beyond educational participation itself.
AQA's 2023 mark scheme recognises that education can:
increase human capital
help reduce gender inequality
contribute to reducing health inequality
affect social mobility
contribute to modernisation
Therefore:
NGO educational support → increased educational opportunities → possible effects on skills, gender and health → wider development
This is a good example of how separate aspects of Global Development connect.
NGOs and health: a wider development effect
Similarly, improved healthcare can be understood as development in its own right rather than merely as a route to economic growth.
AQA identifies health as one of the required aspects of development.
An international NGO contributing to healthcare can therefore potentially improve development even if its immediate purpose is not to increase national income.
This is an important reminder that development should not be defined entirely economically.
Economic growth is not the only measure of NGO success
NGO projects may produce benefits that are not best measured through Gross National Product or economic growth.
For example:
increased access to education
improved healthcare
reduced gender inequality
stronger participation by local people
may all represent important development outcomes.
AQA assessment materials recognise health, gender equality and sustainability alongside economic measures when evaluating development.
Therefore, a judgement of NGOs needs to use a broad definition of development.
NGOs versus TNCs
NGOs and TNCs can both operate internationally, but their roles in development differ.
NGOs | TNCs |
May focus directly on development needs. | Primarily economic corporations. |
May use grassroots or people-centred approaches. | May contribute through investment and employment. |
May support health and education. | May contribute to industrialisation and skills. |
May depend on voluntary or charitable funding. | Can possess substantial corporate resources. |
May be affected by donor priorities. | May possess significant economic power. |
Local participation can be central. | Economic relationships and employment are central. |
You should avoid assuming that either organisational form automatically produces better development outcomes.
NGOs versus international agencies
The next lesson examines international agencies [International agencies].
The important distinction for now is that AQA treats:
TNCs
NGOs
international agencies
as separate organisations whose roles in local and global development strategies need to be understood.
A useful exam skill is therefore being able to identify precisely which type of organisation the question is asking about.
Building strong chains of analysis
For local participation:
local people involved → NGO gains local knowledge → project matches community needs → greater potential effectiveness
For rapid response:
flexible NGO structure → resources mobilised quickly → assistance reaches people sooner → development problem addressed more rapidly
For education:
NGO aid → greater educational access → increased skills or reduced gender inequality → contribution to development
For women's healthcare:
NGO healthcare project → women's health needs addressed → gender inequality in health reduced → wider development
For donor influence:
NGO relies on donor resources → donor priorities affect project → local needs may receive less attention → effectiveness reduced
For gender marginalisation:
women excluded from decision making → women's needs underrepresented → project reinforces gender inequality → contribution to development weakened
How to evaluate NGOs effectively
A strong evaluation should not simply write:
"NGOs are good because they help people."
Instead, ask:
What does the NGO actually do?
How does this contribute to development?
Why might an NGO be particularly effective?
What limits its effectiveness?
Whose needs determine the project?
Who benefits and who may be excluded?
This turns general knowledge into sociological analysis.
A conditional judgement
The evidence supports neither of these extreme conclusions:
"NGOs are always more effective than governments."
or:
"NGOs cannot significantly affect development."
A more defensible conclusion is:
NGOs can contribute effectively where they combine local knowledge, participation and flexible responses with sufficient resources. Their effectiveness can be reduced where funding is limited, donor or government priorities dominate, or important groups within communities are marginalised.
Overall sociological judgement
NGOs have an important role in development because they can connect global resources with local projects and may operate through grassroots and people-centred approaches.
AQA material identifies particular strengths including:
flexibility
rapid mobilisation of resources
local knowledge
involvement of local people
relative independence from some political agendas
It also identifies contributions to:
education
health
girls and women
reproductive rights
gender equality
However, NGO activity can be limited by:
access to funding
voluntary or charitable status
media profile
donor demands
government influence
unequal participation
marginalisation of women
The most convincing sociological interpretation is therefore that NGOs can make an important contribution to local and global development, but being an NGO does not automatically make an organisation effective or people-centred. The outcome depends on resources, participation, power and the extent to which projects respond to the needs of the people they are intended to support.
Key Words 🔑
Key word | Student-friendly definition | How it may be used in an exam |
Non-governmental organisation (NGO) | An organisation operating separately from government that may become involved in development activities. | Define the organisation before explaining its role in development. |
Grassroots development | Development that places strong emphasis on action and participation at community level. | Explain why NGO projects may respond closely to local needs. |
People-centred development | An approach that places people's needs and participation at the centre of development. | Evaluate development based on local outcomes rather than economic growth alone. |
Local participation | Involvement of people within a community in development activity and decision making. | Explain how NGOs may gain knowledge of local needs. |
Donor | A source providing resources or funding to support an NGO or development activity. | Evaluate whether donor priorities influence NGO projects. |
Gender inequality | Unequal opportunities or outcomes associated with gender. | Analyse NGO projects involving girls' education, women's healthcare or participation. |
Aid | Resources provided to support people or development. | Link NGO activity to wider debates about aid and development. |
Development | Economic, social and other changes through which societies or people's lives may improve. | Judge whether an NGO project produces meaningful development outcomes. |
Modernisation theory | An approach emphasising economic and social transformation as part of development. | Explain how improvements in education or health may contribute to development. |
Dependency | Unequal relationships in which development may be shaped by reliance on more powerful external actors. | Evaluate reliance on external funding or donor priorities. |
Hints from the Examiner Reports 💡
Examiner hint: Keep the answer focused on the precise relationship in the question. AQA repeatedly warns against writing everything you know about a topic rather than explaining the connection being asked about. If the question asks how NGOs affect gender inequality, every point must connect the NGO activity to gender inequality, not simply describe NGOs or gender.
Examiner hint: Develop two points fully in a 10-mark question. AQA reports that successful 10-mark responses state a clear point and develop it using sociological concepts and evidence. Giving more than two points can leave each underdeveloped.
Examiner hint: NGO knowledge can be successfully connected to other parts of Global Development. In 2025, successful responses to the education question included ways in which aid from NGOs may affect education.
Examiner hint: Examples should develop a sociological argument rather than replace it. If you use Oxfam, Save the Children or Médecins Sans Frontières, first explain the general role of NGOs and then use the organisation to illustrate that point.
Examiner hint: AQA's general 20-mark guidance stresses that evaluation should weigh strengths and limitations and reach a reasoned judgement rather than simply adding a learned criticism.
Examiner hint: Be selective in extended answers. AQA reports that a smaller number of relevant ideas developed in depth is more effective than attempting to include every possible theory or issue.
Common Mistakes ⚠️
Mistake: Treating NGOs as government organisations
Why this is incorrect: Their relative independence from government is one of the features AQA recognises when discussing NGO effectiveness.
How to improve: Keep NGOs separate from government development programmes and from international agencies [International agencies].
Mistake: Assuming every NGO uses a genuine grassroots approach
Why this is incorrect: AQA recognises grassroots and people-centred development, but also recognises that NGOs may respond to donors or governments.
How to improve: Ask whether local people genuinely determine the project's priorities.
Mistake: Saying that local participation automatically makes a project equal
Why this is incorrect: AQA explicitly identifies the possible marginalisation of women within NGO projects.
How to improve: Ask which members of the community participate and who has decision-making power.
Mistake: Assuming NGOs always reduce gender inequality
Why this is incorrect: AQA's 2021 mark scheme recognises both possibilities. NGOs may support women and girls, but may also reinforce inequality where women's views and needs are ignored.
How to improve: Explain the organisation and design of the project rather than simply assuming its outcome.
Mistake: Treating all NGOs as identical
Why this is incorrect: AQA recognises differences between NGOs and factors such as funding, charitable status and media profile.
How to improve: Use cautious language such as "some NGOs may..." and evaluate the conditions affecting effectiveness.
Mistake: Claiming NGOs are always more effective than governments
Why this is incorrect: NGOs may have advantages in flexibility and local knowledge, but effectiveness may be limited by access to resources.
How to improve: Compare responsiveness with capacity and scale.
Mistake: Ignoring donors
Why this is incorrect: AQA specifically recognises the possibility that NGO activity responds to donor demands.
How to improve: Evaluate whose priorities determine how funding is spent.
Mistake: Defining successful development only as economic growth
Why this is incorrect: NGOs may contribute through education, health and gender equality, all of which fall within AQA's Global Development content.
How to improve: Use a broad understanding of development when evaluating NGO success.
Exam-Style Questions ✍️
Question 1
What is meant by a non-governmental organisation (NGO)? (1 mark)
Question 2
Explain one reason why local participation may make an NGO development project more effective. (4 marks)
Question 3
Explain two ways in which NGOs may contribute to the development of education or healthcare. (6 marks)
Question 4
Outline and explain two ways in which NGOs may reduce gender inequalities in developing countries. (10 marks)
Question 5
Outline and explain two limitations of NGOs as organisations involved in development. (10 marks)
Question 6
Read Item A and answer the question that follows.
Item A
An NGO has worked within several communities for many years. Its workers involve local people when deciding which development problems should be addressed. However, the organisation relies on external donors for much of the money used to fund its projects.
Applying material from Item A, analyse two factors that may affect the NGO's contribution to development. (10 marks)
Question 7
Read Item B and answer the question that follows.
Item B
Some NGOs support projects involving girls' education and women's healthcare. Community-based development projects may also provide opportunities for women to participate.
However, existing inequalities may affect whose views are heard when projects are designed, and NGOs may also respond to the priorities of donors.
Applying material from Item B, analyse two ways in which NGOs may affect gender inequalities in developing societies. (10 marks)
Question 8
Read Item C and answer the question that follows.
Item C
Some sociologists argue that NGOs can be particularly effective because they are flexible and may have detailed knowledge of local needs. Grassroots projects can involve local people directly in development.
However, NGOs may have limited resources, and their projects can be influenced by donors, governments and inequalities within local communities.
Applying material from Item C and your knowledge, evaluate the contribution of non-governmental organisations to development. (20 marks)
Answers and mark scheme
Question 1
Answer: An organisation operating separately from government that may be involved in development activities. (1 mark)
Award one mark for an accurate definition.
Question 2
Up to 4 marks for one developed explanation.
A strong answer could explain that involving local people gives an NGO greater knowledge of the particular needs of a community. This may allow the project to be designed around those needs rather than applying the same approach everywhere, potentially making the intervention more effective.
Question 3
Award marks for two developed ways.
Possible content includes:
Education
NGO aid may increase educational provision or access. Support for girls' education may also reduce gender inequality.
Healthcare
International NGOs may provide healthcare or help improve access to health resources. Women's healthcare and reproductive rights may also form part of NGO development projects.
For higher marks, students should explain how each activity contributes to development rather than simply listing NGO activities.
Question 4
A high-level response should develop two distinct ways.
Possible content includes:
Girls' education
NGOs may support educational opportunities for girls. Increased access to education can reduce gender inequality in educational opportunities.
Women's healthcare
NGOs may support women's healthcare or reproductive rights, reducing gender inequalities in access to health services.
Other relevant points may include:
involving women in community projects
employing women as NGO staff
including women in decision making
Each point should explain the connection to gender inequality.
Question 5
Possible limitations include:
Funding
NGOs may rely on voluntary or charitable funding. Limited access to funds can restrict the scale or duration of development projects.
Donor influence
NGOs may respond to the demands of donors. If donor priorities differ from local priorities, projects may become less genuinely people-centred.
Other relevant limitations may include:
media profile affecting access to resources
government influence
marginalisation of women
failure to represent all local groups
limited scale
For high marks, two limitations should be developed fully rather than simply listed.
Question 6
A strong answer should develop both hooks from Item A.
Possible factor 1: local knowledge
The item states that the NGO has worked within the communities for many years and involves local people. This may give the organisation detailed knowledge of community needs. Projects may therefore be better targeted and more consistent with grassroots or people-centred development.
Possible factor 2: donor funding
The item states that the NGO relies on external donors. Donor funding provides necessary resources but may also affect which projects receive support. If donor priorities differ from local needs, the NGO's contribution may become less people-centred.
For high marks, each hook should be developed into a clear explanation of its effect on development.
Question 7
A high-level response should analyse two separate effects.
Possible way 1: reducing gender inequality
The item refers to girls' education and women's healthcare. NGO projects in these areas can increase women's and girls' access to important opportunities and services, reducing gender inequalities.
Possible way 2: reproducing gender inequality
The item notes that existing inequalities can affect whose views are heard. If women have little influence over project decisions, their needs may be marginalised. The project could therefore reproduce patriarchal inequalities despite being intended to promote development.
Alternatively, students may develop donor influence where donor priorities shape projects affecting women.
Question 8
A strong 20-mark response should evaluate both the strengths and limitations of NGOs as contributors to development.
Arguments supporting the contribution of NGOs may include:
flexibility
rapid mobilisation of resources
detailed local knowledge
involvement of local people
relative independence from some government political agendas
grassroots development
people-centred development
support for education
girls' education
healthcare
women's healthcare
reproductive rights
reduction of gender inequalities
Examples supported by AQA materials may include:
Oxfam
Save the Children
Médecins Sans Frontières
Arguments limiting the contribution of NGOs may include:
voluntary or charitable status
limited access to funds
differences in media profile
donor priorities
government influence
limited scale
marginalisation of women
unequal participation in decision making
projects that fail to take account of women's views or needs
Sociological evaluation may include:
people-centred and grassroots approaches as alternatives to top-down development
modernisation arguments concerning improvements in education and health
dependency concerns about reliance on external resources or priorities
feminist analysis of women's participation and outcomes
whether wider human development is a better measure of success than economic growth alone
For the highest marks, students should not simply produce one paragraph of advantages followed by one paragraph of disadvantages. Each apparent strength should be evaluated.
For example:
Local participation may make NGOs more responsive because projects are based on community knowledge. However, communities themselves may contain inequalities, so participation does not guarantee that women's views or the needs of all groups will shape the project.
A well-supported conclusion might argue that NGOs can make a particularly important contribution where development requires local knowledge, participation and targeted support in areas such as education and health. However, their effectiveness depends on sufficient resources and genuine local influence. Where donor priorities dominate or disadvantaged groups are excluded from decision making, their contribution may be much more limited.
Comments