Social action theories | AQA A-Level Sociology

For Specification 7192

AQA A-Level Sociology | Free Revision Notes

Estimated study time: 35 minutes

exam questions by topic 👇

Social action theories form part of the compulsory Theory and Methods content in AQA A-Level Sociology. This Social action theories A-Level Sociology revision page focuses on the importance of social action when explaining behaviour and social issues. The topic develops the comparison begun in structural approaches [Structural theories], allowing you to consider one of AQA's important theoretical debates: the significance of social structure and social action. It also prepares you to move on to sociological debates about modern society [Modernity].

Learning Objectives 🎯

By the end of this revision page, you should be able to:

• Explain the place of social action theories within AQA's Theory and Methods content.

• Explain why social action is important in sociological explanations.

• Examine how social action can be connected to substantive sociological issues.

• Distinguish social action theories from structural theories.

• Compare social action and structural approaches to explaining behaviour.

• Apply the distinction between structure and action when analysing sociological issues.

Revision Notes 📚

Social action theories A-Level Sociology revision: what AQA requires

AQA requires A-Level Sociology students to examine four broad categories of sociological theory:

• consensus theories

• conflict theories

• structural theories

• social action theories.

The revision plan separates these into individual lessons. For this lesson, the specified learning objectives are to:

• explain the characteristics of social action theories

• examine the importance of social action in explaining behaviour

• compare social action and structural approaches.

Social action theory therefore belongs within a wider debate about how sociologists explain human behaviour and social issues.

What is social action?

The supplied AQA specification does not provide a detailed definition of social action. However, it explicitly states that students must understand the significance of:

• conflict and consensus

• social structure and social action

• the role of values.

AQA also states that the study of Sociology should provide students with awareness of the importance of social structure and social action in explaining social issues.

At the level supported by the supplied sources, social action theories can therefore be understood as theories for which social action is important in explaining behaviour and social issues.

This lesson asks you to examine that importance and compare it with approaches that place importance on social structure.

Social structure and social action

The central comparison for this lesson is between social structure and social action.

AQA explicitly identifies both as significant when explaining social issues. The revision plan reinforces this by placing structural theories [Structural theories] immediately before this lesson and requiring students to compare structural and social action approaches.

Approach	Focus supported by the revision plan
Structural theories	The importance of social structure in explaining behaviour
Social action theories	The importance of social action in explaining behaviour
Theoretical comparison	The relative importance of structure and action when explaining sociological issues

📌 Key idea: The structure-action debate asks students to think about what should be given explanatory importance when sociologists try to understand behaviour and social issues.

The detailed answer offered by particular theories is not given in the specification, so you should use only theoretical detail supported by your course materials.

Why social action matters in Sociology

AQA's aims for the course state that Sociology should develop an awareness of the importance of both social structure and social action in explaining social issues.

This means a sociological explanation should not automatically assume that only one type of explanation matters.

When considering social action, students should ask:

1. What behaviour or social issue needs explaining?

2. What role does social action have within the explanation?

3. How would placing more emphasis on social structure change the explanation?

4. Which approach appears more useful for understanding the particular issue?

5. Can the different explanations be compared using relevant sociological evidence?

These questions help turn abstract Theory and Methods knowledge into analysis.

Social action as a course-wide theoretical issue

AQA requires sociological theories and perspectives to be an integral part of substantive topic study.

The specification also requires two core themes to run throughout the qualification:

1. socialisation, culture and identity

2. social differentiation, power and stratification.

Students should make connections between these themes, theoretical issues and substantive topics rather than treating them as completely separate parts of the course.

Social action theory can therefore be considered alongside areas such as:

• education

• culture and identity

• families and households

• crime and deviance

• other optional topics studied by the student.

The exact social action explanation used would need to come from supported course materials because the specification does not provide the substantive theories.

Applying social action approaches to education

Education provides opportunities to think about both structure and action.

AQA requires students to study:

• teacher-pupil relationships

• pupil identities and subcultures

• the hidden curriculum

• the organisation of teaching and learning

• differential educational achievement

• the relationship between education and class structure.

Some of these issues concern relationships and processes within schools, while the specification also explicitly refers to class structure.

This creates an opportunity for theoretical comparison.

For example, when studying pupil experiences, you could ask:

• What behaviour or interaction needs to be explained?

• How could social action be important?

• How might a structural approach explain the same issue differently?

• What sociological evidence studied in Education could be used?

Applying social action approaches to culture and identity

AQA requires students studying Culture and Identity to examine:

• the socialisation process

• the role of agencies of socialisation

• the self, identity and difference as socially caused and socially constructed

• relationships between identity and a range of social characteristics.

This provides another area in which questions about social action may be relevant.

When revising these topics, you might consider how sociological explanations connect behaviour and identity to:

• social action

• social structure

• socialisation

• wider social contexts.

The important examination skill is to apply the relevant theory rather than simply state that "social action matters".

Applying social action approaches to families and households

Families and Households also provides opportunities for structure-action comparisons.

AQA requires students to examine:

• the relationship between family and social structure

• social change

• state policies

• gender roles

• domestic labour

• power relationships

• changing family and household structures.

The explicit reference to the family's relationship with the social structure makes this a particularly useful topic for comparing structure with social action.

A useful analytical question is:

To what extent should family behaviour be explained through wider social structures, and what importance should be given to social action?

Again, the exact theoretical answers cannot be supplied from the specification alone, but the comparison itself is explicitly within the course requirements.

Applying social action approaches to crime and deviance

The connection between theory and crime is especially clear in the revision plan.

When Theory and Methods is revisited through Crime and Deviance, the plan includes sociological theories and crime [Sociological theories and crime], with students required to:

• apply consensus and conflict theories to crime and deviance

• apply structural and social action theories to crime and deviance

• compare different theoretical explanations.

This provides a clear example of synoptic application.

A structural and social action comparison could therefore be applied to specification content including:

• crime and deviance

• social order

• social control

• the social distribution of crime

• crime control

• surveillance

• prevention

• punishment.

A student should not merely define the theoretical labels. They should explain how the chosen theory helps account for the particular crime-related issue in the question.

Moving from description to application

A theoretical answer becomes stronger when theory is applied to a specific sociological issue.

Description only

A student states that social action theories are one of the theoretical approaches required by AQA.

This demonstrates some relevant knowledge, but it does not show how the theory explains an issue.

Application

The student identifies a particular issue, such as relationships and processes within schools or crime and deviance, and explains how the relevant social action argument helps explain it.

This directly supports Assessment Objective 2 (AO2), which requires students to apply sociological theories, concepts, evidence and research methods to a range of issues.

Comparing social action and structural approaches

Comparison is the central evaluative skill for this lesson.

The preceding structural theories [Structural theories] lesson focuses on the importance of social structure. This lesson shifts attention to social action.

A useful comparison can be built in stages.

Step 1: Identify the issue

Start with the behaviour or social issue that needs explaining.

For example:

• educational experiences

• family relationships

• identity

• crime and deviance.

Step 2: Explain the structural account

Explain why social structure is important according to the structural theory you have studied.

Step 3: Explain the social action account

Explain why social action is important according to the social action theory you have studied.

Step 4: Establish the difference

Do not simply write that the theories "disagree".

Explain what is different about their explanations.

The central specification-supported distinction concerns the importance given to:

• social structure

• social action.

Step 5: Use the substantive issue

Keep returning to the actual topic in the question.

For example, if the question concerns crime, comparison should explain how the two approaches differ in their explanation of crime, rather than turning into a generic description of theory.

Step 6: Reach a judgement

Consider what the comparison reveals about the usefulness of each approach.

A developed judgement might consider whether:

• structure is especially important for the particular issue

• social action is especially important

• both contribute to a sociological understanding of the issue.

The detailed judgement should be based on the specific theories and evidence studied.

A comparison framework

Comparison question	Structural approach	Social action approach
What is central to this lesson's explanation?	Importance of social structure	Importance of social action
What must the student do?	Explain how structure contributes to understanding behaviour	Explain how action contributes to understanding behaviour
What should comparison establish?	How a structurally focused explanation differs from one focused on social action	How a social-action explanation differs from a structurally focused explanation
What should both be applied to?	Substantive sociological issues	Substantive sociological issues
What should a developed answer eventually do?	Contribute to a comparison and judgement	Contribute to a comparison and judgement

Social action theories are not the same as conflict theories

AQA separately specifies:

• consensus

• conflict

• structural

• social action theories.

Students should therefore avoid treating these categories as synonyms.

For example, it would be inaccurate simply to assume:

social action theory = conflict theory

or:

social action theory = consensus theory

The supplied specification does not provide enough detail to establish how particular theories fit across more than one classification.

When writing an answer, use theoretical labels precisely and only where you can support them.

Social action and the core themes

Social action should also be connected, where appropriate, to AQA's two core themes.

Socialisation, culture and identity

Students must consider socialisation, culture and identity throughout the course.

When applying a social action theory to an appropriate topic, you can consider whether it helps explain behaviour connected with socialisation or identity.

Social differentiation, power and stratification

This second core theme requires attention to social differences, power and stratification.

When comparing social action and structural approaches, consider how the relevant theory helps explain issues involving social groups, inequality or power.

AQA treats these core themes as threads running through Sociology rather than as isolated topics.

Comparing theories rather than listing them

A weak comparison often looks like this:

"Structural theories focus on social structure. Social action theories focus on social action."

This identifies the basic contrast, but it does not develop analysis.

A stronger comparison would:

1. identify a particular sociological issue

2. explain a structural account of that issue

3. explain a social action account of the same issue

4. identify the exact difference between the explanations

5. consider relevant sociological evidence

6. use that comparison to reach a judgement.

This is much closer to the analytical demands of A-Level Sociology.

Social action and the relationship between theory and methods

Later in Theory and Methods, students study the relationship between theory and methods [The relationship between theory and methods].

The revision plan requires students to:

• explain relationships between sociological theory and research methods

• examine how theoretical perspectives may influence methodological choices

• evaluate the extent to which theory determines the methods sociologists use.

This creates a later opportunity to consider how theoretical perspectives connect with sociological research.

However, the supplied specification does not state that social action theorists must use a particular research method.

⚠️ Avoid automatically attaching a method to social action theory unless this is supported by the detailed course material you are using.

Social action, evidence and sociological explanations

AQA expects students to examine both:

• evidence

• sociological explanations

for substantive areas of the course.

This is important when comparing theories.

A theoretical argument should not simply be memorised in isolation. Students should think about whether it provides a convincing explanation of the sociological evidence studied within the relevant topic.

This can help develop analysis:

Theory → application to issue → evidence → comparison → judgement

That sequence can be particularly useful when planning extended writing.

Evaluating through comparison

Although the learning objective asks specifically to compare social action and structural approaches, comparison can contribute directly to evaluation.

AQA's Assessment Objective 3 (AO3) requires students to analyse and evaluate sociological theories, concepts and evidence in order to:

• present arguments

• make judgements

• draw conclusions.

A developed comparison should therefore answer questions such as:

• What does a social action explanation illuminate about the issue?

• What does a structural explanation emphasise instead?

• Which explanation accounts more effectively for the particular issue?

• What does relevant evidence suggest?

• Is it necessary to consider both structure and action?

• What overall judgement follows from the comparison?

The detailed answers depend on the specific theoretical material studied and cannot be supplied from the specification alone.

Avoiding false oppositions

The specification requires students to understand the significance of social structure and social action.

It does not state in the supplied material that students must always conclude that one completely excludes the other.

You should therefore avoid unsupported claims such as:

"Social action theories completely reject all social structure."

The specification does not provide enough information to support that statement.

Instead, accurately compare the importance given to structure and action in the particular theories you have studied.

Preparing for the next theoretical debates

Social action theory sits within a wider sequence of sociological theory.

After studying consensus, conflict, structural and social action theories, the revision plan moves to modern society [Modernity] and then post-modernity.

This progression helps students move from different ways of explaining society and behaviour towards debates about the nature of contemporary society itself.

Exam application: AO1, AO2 and AO3

The three A-Level assessment objectives provide a useful framework for answering theory questions.

AO1: Knowledge and understanding

You need accurate knowledge and understanding of relevant sociological theories and concepts.

For this lesson, that means accurately explaining the social action approach you have studied and distinguishing it from structural explanations.

AO2: Application

You need to apply sociological theories and concepts to a range of issues.

Do not leave your theory floating separately from the question. Apply it directly to the sociological issue being discussed.

AO3: Analysis and evaluation

You need to:

• present arguments

• make judgements

• draw conclusions.

Comparison between structural and social action approaches can therefore become part of a developed AO3 argument.

📌 Exam focus: The phrase "social action" alone does not constitute explanation. Explain exactly how the relevant social action theory accounts for the issue, then compare that account with a structural explanation.

Key Words 🔑

Key word	Student-friendly definition	How it may be used in an exam
Social action theories	One of the four broad categories of sociological theory AQA requires students to examine, with this lesson focusing on the importance of social action in explaining behaviour.	Explain and apply social action approaches and compare them with structural theories.
Social action	AQA identifies social action as an important consideration when explaining social issues. The supplied specification does not give a more detailed formal definition.	Explain why action matters to the particular sociological issue being studied.
Social structure	AQA identifies social structure alongside social action as important in explaining social issues.	Use when comparing structural and social action approaches.
Structural theories	One of AQA's four required theoretical categories, with the preceding lesson focusing on the importance of social structure.	Compare structural explanations with social action explanations.
Consensus theories	One of the broad categories of sociological theory specified by AQA.	Distinguish theoretical categories and apply them where relevant.
Conflict theories	Another category of sociological theory explicitly required by AQA.	Use accurately when comparing different sociological explanations.
AO2	The assessment objective requiring students to apply sociological theories, concepts, evidence and methods to issues.	Apply social action theory directly to the context or topic in the question.
AO3	Analysis and evaluation used to present arguments, make judgements and draw conclusions.	Compare explanations and use the comparison to reach a reasoned judgement.

Common Mistakes ⚠️

Mistake: Treating social action and social structure as the same thing

Why this is incorrect: AQA specifically requires students to understand the significance of social structure and social action, and the revision plan treats structural and social action theories as separate lessons.

How to improve: Be clear about which theoretical approach you are discussing and compare the relative importance given to structure and action.

Mistake: Giving only a two-sentence comparison

Why this is incorrect: Simply saying "one focuses on structure and one on action" identifies a difference but does not develop analysis.

How to improve: Apply both explanations to the same sociological issue and explain how their accounts differ.

Mistake: Describing a theory without applying it

Why this is incorrect: AO2 requires students to apply sociological theories and concepts to issues.

How to improve: After explaining a theoretical argument, connect it directly to the education, family, identity, crime or other sociological issue in the question.

Mistake: Assuming social action theories completely reject social structure

Why this is incorrect: The supplied specification does not make this claim.

How to improve: Explain the importance given to social action by the particular theory you have studied, then compare this carefully with a structural explanation.

Mistake: Assuming social action theories automatically use one particular research method

Why this is incorrect: AQA requires students to examine both sociological theories and research methods, but the supplied specification does not state that social action theory must be associated with a particular method.

How to improve: Make claims about the relationship between theory and methods only when they are supported by the relevant course content.

Mistake: Treating Theory and Methods as separate from the rest of Sociology

Why this is incorrect: AQA requires theories and perspectives to be integral to substantive topic study and expects students to make links between different areas of the course.

How to improve: Practise applying social action and structural theories to substantive topics. The later sociological theories and crime [Sociological theories and crime] lesson explicitly revisits both approaches.

Exam-Style Questions ✍️

Question 1

Identify the theoretical approach that AQA requires students to consider alongside social structure when explaining social issues. [1 mark]

Question 2

Identify two other categories of theory specified by AQA, apart from structural and social action theories. [2 marks]

Question 3

Outline two reasons why social action theories form an important part of Theory and Methods. [4 marks]

Question 4

Explain two ways in which structural and social action approaches can be compared when studying a sociological issue. [6 marks]

Question 5

Item A

A sociologist is studying relationships and processes within schools. The sociologist is interested in explaining pupil behaviour and wants to consider both social action and wider social structure.

Using Item A, explain why comparing social action and structural approaches could contribute to the sociological study of education. [6 marks]

Question 6

Item B

Researchers investigating families are interested in the relationship between the family and social structure. However, they also want to consider the importance of social action when explaining family behaviour.

Using Item B and your knowledge of Theory and Methods, analyse the importance of the structure-action distinction when explaining family life. [10 marks]

Question 7

Item C

Two sociologists are studying crime and deviance. One gives particular importance to social structure when explaining behaviour. The other uses a social action approach. They examine the same sociological issue but reach different explanations.

Using Item C, analyse how comparing structural and social action approaches could improve a sociological explanation of crime and deviance. [10 marks]

Question 8

Evaluate the view that sociological explanations of behaviour should consider both social structure and social action. [10 marks]

Answers and Mark Scheme

Question 1

Award one mark for:

• social action.

Question 2

Award one mark for each, maximum two marks:

• consensus theories

• conflict theories.

Question 3

Award up to two marks for each developed reason, maximum four marks.

Possible content includes:

• social action theories are explicitly included in AQA's compulsory Theory and Methods content

• AQA requires students to understand the significance of social structure and social action

• AQA identifies social structure and social action as important in explaining social issues

• sociological theories should be connected to substantive Sociology

• social action approaches can be compared with structural theories.

A developed point should explain why the feature matters rather than merely identify it.

Question 4

Award up to three marks for each developed comparison, maximum six marks.

Possible answers include:

• structural approaches can be examined in terms of the importance they give to social structure, whereas social action approaches can be examined in terms of the importance they give to social action

• both approaches can be applied to the same sociological issue and their explanations compared

• relevant evidence can be used to consider how useful the different explanations are

• comparison can contribute to a judgement about the relative importance of structure and action.

Higher marks require genuine comparison rather than two separate descriptions.

Question 5

Indicative content includes:

• Item A focuses on relationships and processes within schools, which are explicit AQA Education content

• social action can be considered when explaining the behaviour or relationships being investigated

• structural approaches allow the same issue to be considered in relation to wider social structure

• AQA requires students to understand the significance of both structure and action

• comparing the approaches can reveal different sociological explanations of the same educational issue

• direct application to Item A demonstrates AO2.

Higher-level responses maintain a clear link between theoretical comparison and the educational context.

Question 6

Possible analysis includes:

• AQA Families and Households content explicitly includes the relationship between family and social structure

• AQA's Theory and Methods requirements also require understanding of social action

• a structural explanation and a social action explanation may therefore place importance on different aspects of the same family issue

• comparing them can reveal differences in how family behaviour is explained

• the two explanations should be compared using relevant sociological evidence

• the comparison can lead towards a judgement about the relative importance of structure and action.

A stronger response develops an argument rather than merely defining the two labels.

Question 7

Indicative content includes:

• Crime and Deviance is a substantive area of the AQA course.

• The revision plan explicitly requires students to apply structural and social action theories to crime and deviance.

• Item C establishes two different ways of approaching the same issue.

• A structural explanation would give importance to social structure.

• A social action explanation would give importance to social action.

• Comparison should explain how these different emphases affect the sociological explanation.

• Relevant crime and deviance evidence could be used to analyse the usefulness of the explanations.

• A reasoned judgement could identify what the comparison contributes to understanding the issue.

Higher marks require sustained use of Item C and developed comparison.

Question 8

A source-supported answer could consider:

• AQA explicitly identifies both social structure and social action as important when explaining social issues

• structural theories and social action theories are both compulsory Theory and Methods content

• studying both allows different explanations of the same issue to be compared

• theories should be applied to substantive areas rather than studied entirely separately

• sociological evidence can be used when analysing competing explanations

• comparison can contribute to arguments, judgements and conclusions under AO3

• the usefulness of each approach may be considered in relation to the particular issue.