Operant conditioning | AQA A-Level Psychology Revision

For 7182 specification, first teach in September 2025

AQA A-Level Psychology | Free Revision Notes

Estimated study time: 45 minutes

These Operant conditioning A-Level Psychology revision notes explain how behaviour can be learned from its consequences. You will examine positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement and punishment before exploring how Skinner investigated learning using animals in controlled environments. Operant conditioning is an important part of the behaviourist approach and helps explain behaviours ranging from everyday habits to the maintenance of phobias. It follows naturally from learning through association and prepares you to evaluate the behaviourist approach.

Learning Objectives 🎯

By the end of this revision page, you should be able to:

• Define operant conditioning.

• Explain how consequences influence future behaviour.

• Distinguish between positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement.

• Distinguish reinforcement from punishment.

• Describe Skinner’s research into operant conditioning.

• Apply operant conditioning to unfamiliar situations.

Revision Notes 📚

Operant conditioning A-Level Psychology revision overview

Operant conditioning is a form of learning in which behaviour is shaped by its consequences.

A behaviour that produces a desirable consequence is more likely to be repeated. A behaviour that produces an undesirable consequence may become less likely to occur again.

The basic sequence is:

Behaviour → consequence → change in the future likelihood of the behaviour

Unlike classical conditioning, which involves learning an association between two stimuli, operant conditioning focuses on what happens after a behaviour.

The AQA specification requires students to understand operant conditioning, types of reinforcement and Skinner’s research as part of the behaviourist approach.

Behaviour and its consequences

Operant conditioning usually concerns behaviour that operates on the environment.

For example, a person may:

• Complete a task.

• Press a button.

• Ask for assistance.

• Avoid a frightening situation.

• Follow a particular rule.

A consequence then follows the behaviour. This consequence affects whether the person or animal is likely to behave in the same way again.

There are two central outcomes:

• Reinforcement increases the likelihood that a behaviour will be repeated.

• Punishment decreases the likelihood that a behaviour will be repeated.

The effect on future behaviour is what matters. A consequence is only a reinforcer if it actually increases the behaviour.

What is reinforcement?

Reinforcement is a consequence that makes a behaviour more likely to occur again.

There are two types required for this lesson:

1. Positive reinforcement

2. Negative reinforcement

Both forms of reinforcement increase behaviour. The difference is whether something is added or removed.

Positive means added. Negative means removed.It does not mean good or bad.

Positive reinforcement

Positive reinforcement occurs when a behaviour is followed by the addition of a desirable consequence, making the behaviour more likely to be repeated.

The sequence is:

Behaviour → desirable consequence is added → behaviour increases

For example, a student completes their homework and receives praise. If the praise makes the student more likely to complete future homework, the praise has acted as positive reinforcement.

Other examples include:

• A rat presses a lever and receives food.

• A child tidies their room and receives additional screen time.

• An employee completes a task and receives recognition.

• A dog follows a command and receives a treat.

The word positive refers to the addition of a consequence. It does not mean that the behaviour itself is morally good.

Negative reinforcement

Negative reinforcement occurs when a behaviour removes or prevents an unpleasant consequence, making the behaviour more likely to be repeated.

The sequence is:

Behaviour → unpleasant consequence is removed → behaviour increases

For example, a car produces an unpleasant warning sound until the driver fastens their seat belt. Fastening the seat belt removes the sound, making the driver more likely to fasten it quickly in the future.

Other examples include:

• Taking an action that stops an unpleasant noise.

• Completing a task to avoid repeated reminders.

• Leaving a frightening situation to reduce anxiety.

• Pressing a lever that stops an unpleasant stimulus.

Negative reinforcement still increases behaviour. It is not the same as punishment.

Comparing positive and negative reinforcement

Feature	Positive reinforcement	Negative reinforcement
What happens?	A desirable consequence is added	An unpleasant consequence is removed or avoided
Effect on behaviour	Behaviour becomes more likely	Behaviour becomes more likely
Example	Completing work leads to praise	Completing work stops repeated reminders
Key question	What was added?	What was removed or prevented?

The most important similarity is that both increase the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated.

The key difference is whether the consequence involves adding something desirable or removing something unpleasant.

What is punishment?

Punishment is a consequence that makes a behaviour less likely to be repeated.

The sequence is:

Behaviour → unpleasant or unwanted consequence → behaviour decreases

For example, if a pupil repeatedly calls out and receives a consequence that reduces future calling out, the consequence has acted as punishment.

Punishment is different from negative reinforcement:

Negative reinforcement	Punishment
Increases behaviour	Decreases behaviour
Removes or prevents something unpleasant	Introduces an unwanted consequence or otherwise discourages behaviour
The individual behaves to gain relief	The consequence makes the behaviour less likely

⚠️ A consequence cannot be classified only by what the researcher or teacher intended. It must be classified according to its effect on behaviour.

If a supposed punishment does not reduce the behaviour, it has not functioned as an effective punishment.

The operant conditioning process

To explain operant conditioning fully, identify four elements:

1. The behaviour

   
   

   What action does the person or animal perform?

2. The consequence

   
   

   What happens immediately after the behaviour?

3. The type of consequence

   
   

   Is something desirable added, something unpleasant removed, or is the behaviour punished?

4. The effect on future behaviour

   
   

   Does the behaviour become more or less likely?

For example:

A pupil contributes an answer during a lesson. The teacher praises the pupil. The pupil begins contributing more frequently.

• Behaviour: contributing an answer

• Consequence: receiving praise

• Type: positive reinforcement

• Effect: contributing becomes more likely

Applying negative reinforcement to avoidance

Negative reinforcement is particularly important when explaining avoidance behaviour.

Consider a person who fears dogs:

1. The person sees a dog.

2. They experience anxiety.

3. They cross the road to avoid the dog.

4. Their anxiety decreases.

5. The relief reinforces crossing the road.

6. Avoidance becomes more likely in the future.

Crossing the road is negatively reinforced because it removes the unpleasant feeling of anxiety.

This helps explain why avoidance can maintain a phobia even when the person is no longer in genuine danger. The application is developed further in the behavioural explanation of phobias.

Operant conditioning and classical conditioning

Operant and classical conditioning are both learning processes within the behaviourist approach, but they explain different forms of learning.

Classical conditioning	Operant conditioning
Learning through association between stimuli	Learning through the consequences of behaviour
Often involves automatic or reflexive responses	Usually concerns behaviour that acts on the environment
A neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus	A behaviour is strengthened or weakened by what follows it
Associated with Pavlov’s research	Associated with Skinner’s research

A useful memory rule is:

• Classical conditioning: what comes before the response?

• Operant conditioning: what comes after the behaviour?

Skinner’s research

B. F. Skinner investigated operant conditioning using controlled chambers. These are commonly called operant conditioning chambers or Skinner boxes.

Skinner studied animals such as rats and pigeons. The chamber allowed him to control the consequences of particular behaviours and measure how frequently those behaviours occurred.

A chamber could contain:

• A lever that a rat could press.

• A key or disc that a pigeon could peck.

• A food dispenser.

• Lights or sounds.

• Equipment for presenting or removing an unpleasant stimulus.

Because the environment was controlled, Skinner could investigate how different consequences affected behaviour.

Positive reinforcement in Skinner’s research

In one arrangement, a rat could press a lever and receive a food pellet.

Initially, the rat might press the lever accidentally. Once pressing produced food, the rat became more likely to press the lever again.

The sequence was:

Lever press → food added → lever pressing increases

The food acted as positive reinforcement because a desirable consequence was added and the lever-pressing behaviour became more frequent.

Negative reinforcement in Skinner’s research

Skinner could also arrange the chamber so that performing a behaviour removed or stopped an unpleasant stimulus.

For example, a rat might learn that pressing a lever stopped an unpleasant condition.

The sequence was:

Lever press → unpleasant stimulus removed → lever pressing increases

This is negative reinforcement because the behaviour becomes more likely through the removal of something unpleasant.

Punishment in operant conditioning research

A chamber could also be arranged so that a particular response was followed by an unpleasant consequence.

If this reduced the frequency of the response, the consequence functioned as punishment.

The sequence was:

Behaviour → unwanted consequence → behaviour decreases

Skinner’s research therefore showed that behaviour could be influenced systematically by changing what happened immediately after it.

What did Skinner’s research demonstrate?

Skinner’s research demonstrated that consequences can influence the frequency of behaviour.

His findings support three central principles:

• Behaviour followed by positive reinforcement is more likely to be repeated.

• Behaviour followed by negative reinforcement is more likely to be repeated.

• Behaviour followed by punishment may become less likely.

The research also reflects the behaviourist emphasis on observable and measurable behaviour. Skinner could record actions such as lever presses or key pecks rather than relying on reports of private thoughts.

The scientific strengths and limitations of this kind of controlled research are considered in the strengths and limitations of conditioning explanations.

Applying operant conditioning to unfamiliar situations

In an examination, you may be given a scenario and asked to explain behaviour using operant conditioning.

Consider this example:

Every time Amira completes her revision before dinner, her parents stop reminding her to revise. Amira begins completing her revision earlier each day.

The behaviour is completing revision early.

The consequence is that the reminders stop.

The behaviour increases because an unpleasant experience is removed. This is negative reinforcement.

A strong application answer would explain:

Completing the revision is negatively reinforced because it removes the parents’ reminders. The relief from the reminders makes Amira more likely to complete her revision early again.

Simply writing “this is negative reinforcement” would not fully explain the behaviour.

A method for answering application questions

Use the following steps:

1. Identify the behaviour.

2. Identify what happens immediately afterwards.

3. Decide whether the behaviour increases or decreases.

4. If it increases, decide whether something was added or removed.

5. Name the correct process.

6. Use details from the scenario to explain why the behaviour changes.

Effect on behaviour	Consequence	Correct term
Behaviour increases	Something desirable is added	Positive reinforcement
Behaviour increases	Something unpleasant is removed or avoided	Negative reinforcement
Behaviour decreases	An unwanted consequence follows	Punishment

Later applications of operant conditioning

Operant conditioning appears in several later parts of the course.

The removal of anxiety can negatively reinforce avoidance in the maintenance of phobias.

Reinforcement principles can also be used to change behaviour through behavioural programmes in prisons.

Within addiction, reinforcement is applied to gambling behaviour through partial and variable reinforcement.

These applications use the same central principle: the consequences of behaviour affect whether it is repeated.

Key Words 🔑

Key word	Student-friendly definition	How it may be used in an exam
Operant conditioning	Learning in which behaviour is influenced by its consequences.	Define the process or apply it to an unfamiliar scenario.
Behaviour	An observable action performed by a person or animal.	Identify the action being reinforced or punished.
Consequence	An event that follows a behaviour and affects whether it is repeated.	Explain why a behaviour increases or decreases.
Reinforcement	A consequence that increases the likelihood of a behaviour.	Explain how behaviour is strengthened.
Positive reinforcement	Increasing behaviour by adding a desirable consequence.	Identify a reward or desirable outcome added after behaviour.
Negative reinforcement	Increasing behaviour by removing or preventing an unpleasant consequence.	Explain avoidance, escape or relief from something unpleasant.
Punishment	A consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behaviour.	Distinguish punishment from reinforcement.
Reinforcer	A consequence that makes a behaviour more likely to occur again.	Identify what is strengthening the behaviour.
Operant conditioning chamber	A controlled chamber used to investigate how consequences affect animal behaviour.	Describe Skinner’s research.
Skinner box	Another name for an operant conditioning chamber.	Identify the apparatus used in Skinner’s research.
Lever press	A measurable response commonly used in research with rats.	Explain how Skinner measured learned behaviour.
Key peck	A measurable response commonly used in research with pigeons.	Describe another behaviour investigated by Skinner.
Avoidance behaviour	Behaviour that prevents contact with an unpleasant or feared stimulus.	Explain how negative reinforcement can maintain phobias.

Common Mistakes ⚠️

Mistake: Describing negative reinforcement as punishment.

Why this is incorrect:Negative reinforcement increases behaviour by removing or preventing something unpleasant. Punishment decreases behaviour.

How to improve:Always identify whether the behaviour becomes more or less likely before naming the process.

Mistake: Thinking that positive means good and negative means bad.

Why this is incorrect:In operant conditioning, positive means that something is added. Negative means that something is removed.

How to improve:Use the rule:

• Positive = added

• Negative = removed

• Reinforcement = behaviour increases

Mistake: Saying that reinforcement reduces behaviour.

Why this is incorrect:By definition, reinforcement makes behaviour more likely. A consequence that reduces behaviour is punishment.

How to improve:Include the effect on future behaviour every time you define reinforcement.

Mistake: Calling every pleasant consequence positive reinforcement.

Why this is incorrect:A consequence is only a reinforcer if it increases the behaviour that came before it.

How to improve:Explain both the consequence and the resulting increase in behaviour.

Mistake: Explaining operant conditioning as an association between two stimuli.

Why this is incorrect:An association between stimuli describes classical conditioning. Operant conditioning concerns the relationship between behaviour and its consequences.

How to improve:Use the phrase “learning through consequences” when describing operant conditioning.

Mistake: Describing Skinner’s research without identifying the consequence.

Why this is incorrect:Saying only that a rat pressed a lever does not explain operant conditioning. The important part is what happened after the lever was pressed.

How to improve:Use a complete sequence, such as:

Lever press → food pellet → lever pressing increases

Mistake: Assuming that punishment must involve physical harm.

Why this is incorrect:Punishment is defined by its effect on behaviour. It is any consequence that makes the behaviour less likely.

How to improve:Focus on whether the behaviour decreases rather than assuming that a particular type of consequence must be used.

Exam-Style Questions ✍️

Question 1

Which one of the following is an example of negative reinforcement?

A. A pupil receives praise for completing their work.

B. A pupil loses a privilege after breaking a rule.

C. A warning noise stops when a driver fastens their seat belt.

D. A pupil receives a detention and stops calling out.

[1 mark]

Question 2

Define operant conditioning.

[2 marks]

Question 3

Distinguish between positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement.

[4 marks]

Question 4

Explain why punishment is not a type of reinforcement.

[2 marks]

Question 5

Describe Skinner’s research into operant conditioning.

[6 marks]

Question 6

Whenever Leo checks his school bag before leaving home, his father stops reminding him about forgotten equipment. Leo begins checking his bag every morning.

Using your knowledge of operant conditioning, explain why Leo now checks his bag regularly.

[4 marks]

Question 7

A researcher places a rat in an operant conditioning chamber and records how many times it presses a lever during a ten-minute period.

Condition	Consequence of pressing the lever	Number of lever presses
A	No consequence	5
B	A food pellet is delivered	20
C	An unpleasant sound begins	2

a) Identify the type of operant conditioning shown in Condition B.

[1 mark]

b) Explain why the number of lever presses was higher in Condition B than in Condition A.

[3 marks]

c) Calculate the percentage increase in lever pressing from Condition A to Condition B.

Use:

Percentage increase = increase ÷ original value × 100

Show your working.

[2 marks]

d) Explain how the result in Condition C illustrates punishment.

[2 marks]

Question 8

Explain operant conditioning. Refer to positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement and Skinner’s research in your answer.

[8 marks]