The behaviourist approach and classical conditioning | AQA A-Level Psychology Revision
Updated: Sep 9
For 7182 specification, first teach in September 2025
AQA A-Level Psychology | Free Revision Notes
Estimated study time: 40 minutes
These The behaviourist approach and classical conditioning A-Level Psychology revision notes examine how behaviourists explain behaviour as something learned through interaction with the environment. You will explore the approach’s emphasis on observable behaviour, learn the stages of classical conditioning and examine Pavlov’s research with dogs. These ideas provide an important foundation for later work on learning through consequences and behavioural explanations of attachment and phobias. The AQA specification requires knowledge of the behaviourist approach, classical conditioning and Pavlov’s research.
Learning Objectives 🎯
By the end of this revision page, you should be able to:
Define the behaviourist approach.
Explain the basic assumptions of the behaviourist approach.
Explain classical conditioning as learning through association.
Distinguish between unconditioned and conditioned stimuli and responses.
Describe Pavlov’s research into classical conditioning.
Apply classical conditioning to an unfamiliar situation.
Revision Notes đź“š
The behaviourist approach and classical conditioning A-Level Psychology revision overview
The behaviourist approach is one of the learning approaches in psychology. It focuses on how behaviour is acquired through interaction with the environment.
Behaviourists argue that psychology should concentrate on behaviour that can be directly observed and measured. Rather than relying on explanations involving thoughts or feelings that cannot be observed directly, they investigate the environmental events that occur before and after behaviour.
Two important forms of learning within the behaviourist approach are:
Classical conditioning, learning through association.
Operant conditioning, learning through the consequences of behaviour.
This lesson concentrates on classical conditioning. The second form of learning is developed through operant conditioning and reinforcement.
Basic assumptions of the behaviourist approach
Behaviour is learned from the environment
The behaviourist approach proposes that behaviour is largely acquired through experience.
The environment includes the events, objects and situations that a person or animal encounters. Behaviourists investigate how these environmental stimuli become associated with responses or how environmental consequences affect behaviour.
This means that behaviour is not simply treated as something that appears without explanation. Behaviourists look for the learning experiences that may have produced it.
For example, a person who becomes frightened whenever they see a dog may have learned this response after a dog was previously associated with pain or fear.
Psychology should study observable behaviour
Behaviourists focus on observable behaviour, meaning actions or responses that can be seen and measured.
Examples include:
Salivating
Pressing a lever
Approaching an object
Avoiding a situation
Displaying a fear response
Observable responses can be recorded more objectively than private thoughts or feelings. This allows researchers to compare behaviour across different conditions.
Behaviour can be investigated scientifically
Behaviourists often use carefully controlled research in which stimuli and responses can be measured.
A researcher may:
Present a particular stimulus.
Record the response that follows.
Repeat the procedure under controlled conditions.
Compare behaviour before and after learning.
This approach aims to identify relationships between environmental events and behaviour.
Pavlov’s research is an example because he controlled the presentation of stimuli and measured the dogs’ salivary responses.
Learning principles may explain behaviour
The behaviourist approach explains behaviour using learning principles.
In classical conditioning, learning occurs when two stimuli become associated. After learning, a stimulus that did not originally produce a particular response can begin to trigger that response.
This approach is later applied to the development of attachment through learning and conditioning and to the acquisition of phobias through the behavioural explanation of phobias.
What is classical conditioning?
Classical conditioning is learning through association.
It occurs when a previously neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with a stimulus that naturally produces a response. The neutral stimulus eventually becomes able to produce a similar response on its own.
The process involves learning an association between two stimuli.
Neutral stimulus + unconditioned stimulus → association → conditioned response
Classical conditioning usually involves an automatic or reflexive response, such as salivation, fear or blinking. The individual does not have to make a conscious decision to produce the response.
Essential classical conditioning terminology
Classical conditioning can be understood using five key terms.
Term | Abbreviation | Meaning |
Neutral stimulus | NS | A stimulus that does not initially produce the response being investigated. |
Unconditioned stimulus | UCS | A stimulus that naturally produces a response without prior learning. |
Unconditioned response | UCR | The natural, unlearned response produced by the unconditioned stimulus. |
Conditioned stimulus | CS | A previously neutral stimulus that produces a response after being associated with the unconditioned stimulus. |
Conditioned response | CR | The learned response produced by the conditioned stimulus. |
The word unconditioned means that learning is not required.
The word conditioned means that the stimulus-response relationship has been learned.
The three stages of classical conditioning
1. Before conditioning
Before learning has taken place:
The unconditioned stimulus naturally produces the unconditioned response.
The neutral stimulus does not produce the response being investigated.
The relationship is:
UCS → UCR
NS → no relevant response
For example, food naturally causes a hungry dog to salivate. A sound does not initially cause the dog to salivate.
2. During conditioning
The neutral stimulus is presented shortly before or alongside the unconditioned stimulus.
NS + UCS → UCR
The two stimuli are paired, creating an association between them.
For example:
Sound + food → salivation
After repeated pairings, the dog begins to associate the sound with the arrival of food.
3. After conditioning
The previously neutral stimulus has become a conditioned stimulus.
It can now produce a conditioned response without the unconditioned stimulus being presented.
CS → CR
For example:
Sound → salivation
The salivation is now a conditioned response because it has been learned.
Classical conditioning before, during and after learning
Stage | Stimulus and response | Pavlov example |
Before conditioning | UCS → UCR | Food → salivation |
Before conditioning | NS → no relevant response | Sound → no salivation |
During conditioning | NS + UCS → UCR | Sound + food → salivation |
After conditioning | CS → CR | Sound → salivation |
A strong examination answer should show the full sequence. Simply stating that “the dog associated the sound with food” does not demonstrate all the stages of conditioning.
Pavlov’s research
Ivan Pavlov investigated digestive responses in dogs. During this work, he observed that dogs salivated when food was placed in their mouths.
Food naturally produced salivation, so:
The food was the unconditioned stimulus.
Salivation in response to food was the unconditioned response.
Pavlov also noticed that the dogs began salivating before the food was presented. They appeared to respond to cues that had become associated with food.
He investigated this process by presenting a neutral stimulus, such as a sound, before giving the dogs food.
Pavlov’s procedure
A sound was presented to the dog.
Before conditioning, the sound did not produce salivation.
Food was presented, naturally causing the dog to salivate.
The sound and food were repeatedly presented together.
After learning, the sound was presented without food.
The dog salivated in response to the sound alone.
Pavlov’s conditioning sequence
Before conditioning
Food (UCS) → salivation (UCR)
Sound (NS) → no salivation
During conditioning
Sound (NS) + food (UCS) → salivation (UCR)
After conditioning
Sound (CS) → salivation (CR)
The sound began as a neutral stimulus but became a conditioned stimulus after being associated with food.
What did Pavlov’s research demonstrate?
Pavlov’s research demonstrated that a reflexive response could become associated with a new stimulus.
Salivation was originally produced naturally by food. After conditioning, it was produced by a sound that had previously been neutral.
The research therefore illustrates the central behaviourist claim that behaviour can be learned through interaction with environmental stimuli.
It also demonstrates the value behaviourists place on observable and measurable responses. The researcher could control the presentation of the sound and food and record whether salivation occurred.
Unconditioned and conditioned responses
The unconditioned response and conditioned response may look similar, but they are produced by different stimuli.
Unconditioned response | Conditioned response |
Does not require learning | Develops through learning |
Is produced by the UCS | Is produced by the CS |
In Pavlov’s research, salivation caused by food | In Pavlov’s research, salivation caused by the sound |
The response itself may be similar. What matters is whether it was produced naturally by the UCS or learned in response to the CS.
Applying classical conditioning to human behaviour
In an application question, you may be asked to identify the parts of classical conditioning within an unfamiliar scenario.
Consider the following example:
During several dental appointments, the sound of a dental drill is followed by a painful procedure. Eventually, the person feels frightened as soon as they hear the drill, even before the procedure begins.
The conditioning process is:
Classical conditioning term | Application |
Neutral stimulus | The sound of the drill before learning |
Unconditioned stimulus | Pain from the dental procedure |
Unconditioned response | Fear produced naturally by pain |
Conditioned stimulus | The sound of the drill after its association with pain |
Conditioned response | Fear produced by the sound of the drill |
The sound has not physically caused the pain. Instead, it has become associated with pain and now produces a learned fear response.
This principle is important when studying how phobias may be acquired. Its clinical application is developed further in classical and operant conditioning in phobias.
A method for answering application questions
When applying classical conditioning, work through the scenario in four stages.
Find the natural trigger.
Identify the event that produces a response without learning. This is the UCS.
Find the natural response.
Identify the automatic response produced by the UCS. This is the UCR.
Find the original neutral stimulus.
Identify the stimulus that initially did not produce the target response.
Explain what happens after association.
State that the NS becomes the CS and produces the CR.
Use information from the scenario in every stage. Merely defining the terms without connecting them to the named objects, events or responses will not fully answer an application question.
Classical conditioning and operant conditioning
Both forms of conditioning are part of the behaviourist approach, but they explain different learning processes.
Classical conditioning | Operant conditioning |
Learning through association between stimuli | Learning through the consequences of behaviour |
Commonly involves automatic or reflexive responses | Concerns behaviour affected by reinforcement |
Demonstrated through Pavlov’s research | Developed through Skinner’s research in the specification |
You will examine reinforcement and Skinner’s research in learning through consequences. You will then consider the strengths and limitations of the overall approach in evaluating behaviourist explanations.
The behaviourist approach can also be compared with cognitive, biological, psychodynamic and humanistic explanations through similarities and differences between psychological approaches.
Common Mistakes ⚠️
Mistake: Describing the sound in Pavlov’s research as an unconditioned stimulus.
Why this is incorrect:The sound did not naturally cause salivation. It began as a neutral stimulus and became a conditioned stimulus only after being associated with food.
How to improve:Ask whether the stimulus naturally produces the response or whether its effect has been learned.
Mistake: Calling food the conditioned stimulus.
Why this is incorrect:Food naturally produces salivation without prior learning, so it is the unconditioned stimulus.
How to improve:Remember that “unconditioned” means no conditioning or learning is needed.
Mistake: Treating the unconditioned and conditioned responses as completely different behaviours.
Why this is incorrect:In Pavlov’s research, both responses involve salivation. Their classification depends on which stimulus produces them.
How to improve:Always name both the stimulus and the response, for example, “salivation caused by food” and “salivation caused by the sound”.
Mistake: Leaving out the neutral stimulus.
Why this is incorrect:Classical conditioning requires a stimulus that initially does not produce the target response. It is only after association that this becomes the conditioned stimulus.
How to improve:Structure descriptions around what happens before, during and after conditioning.
Mistake: Explaining classical conditioning using rewards or punishments.
Why this is incorrect:Classical conditioning involves learning through an association between stimuli. Rewards, consequences and reinforcement belong to operant conditioning.
How to improve:Use the phrase “learning through association” when explaining classical conditioning.
Mistake: Saying that the sound caused the food to appear.
Why this is incorrect:The dog learned an association between the sound and food. Classical conditioning does not require the conditioned stimulus to physically cause the unconditioned stimulus.
How to improve:Write that the stimuli were paired and became associated rather than claiming that one caused the other.
Mistake: Describing Pavlov’s conclusion without explaining his procedure.
Why this is incorrect:A question asking you to describe research requires details of what was done and what happened.
How to improve:Include the original response to food, the pairing of the sound with food and the later response to the sound alone.
Exam-Style Questions ✍️
Question 1
Which one of the following best describes classical conditioning?
A. Learning by observing another person
B. Learning through an association between stimuli
C. Learning through the consequences of behaviour
D. Learning through conscious reasoning
[1 mark]
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Answer: B. Learning through an association between stimuliQuestion 2
Define the term unconditioned stimulus.
[2 marks]
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Mark scheme
AO1 = 2
2 marks:Â Clear definition referring to a stimulus that naturally or automatically produces an unlearned response.
1 mark:Â Limited or partial definition.
Indicative content
The unconditioned stimulus, UCS, produces a response without prior learning.
In Pavlov's research, food was the UCS because it naturally produced salivation.
Example answer
An unconditioned stimulus is a stimulus that naturally and automatically produces a response without the need for prior learning.
Question 3
Distinguish between a neutral stimulus and a conditioned stimulus.
[2 marks]
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Mark scheme
AO1 = 2
1 mark:Â A neutral stimulus does not initially produce the relevant response.
1 mark:Â After association with the UCS, it becomes a conditioned stimulus that produces a learned response.
Indicative content
The distinction concerns whether conditioning has taken place.
Neutral stimulus, NS:Â before conditioning, does not produce the target response.
Conditioned stimulus, CS:Â after conditioning, produces the conditioned response.
Example answer
A neutral stimulus does not initially produce the target response. After it has been associated with an unconditioned stimulus, it becomes a conditioned stimulus and can produce the learned response on its own.
Question 4
Outline two basic assumptions of the behaviourist approach.
[4 marks]
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Mark scheme
AO1 = 4
Award up to 2 marks for each clearly outlined assumption.
Indicative content
Credit any two appropriate assumptions, including:
Behaviour is largely learned from the environment.
Learning occurs through forms of conditioning, including classical and operant conditioning.
Psychology should focus on observable and measurable behaviour rather than subjective mental processes.
Behaviour should be investigated using objective, controlled scientific methods.
The same basic principles of learning can be studied in non-human animals and applied to human behaviour.
Example answer
One assumption is that behaviour is learned through interactions with the environment, for example through conditioning. Another is that psychology should study observable and measurable behaviour using objective scientific methods rather than relying on unobservable mental processes.
The current specification requires the basic assumptions of the behaviourist approach, together with classical conditioning and Pavlov's research.
Question 5
Describe Pavlov’s research into classical conditioning.
[6 marks]
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Mark scheme
AO1 = 6
5 to 6 marks:Â Knowledge of Pavlov's research is clear, accurate and reasonably detailed. Classical-conditioning terminology is used effectively.
3 to 4 marks:Â Some accurate knowledge is present, although detail or terminology may be incomplete.
1 to 2 marks:Â Limited knowledge of Pavlov's research.
0 marks:Â No relevant content.
Indicative content
Pavlov studied digestive processes in dogs and observed their salivation.
Food naturally produced salivation.
Food therefore acted as the unconditioned stimulus (UCS).
Salivation to food was the unconditioned response (UCR).
A previously neutral stimulus, such as a sound, was presented before or alongside the food.
Initially the sound did not produce the relevant salivation response.
Through repeated pairing, an association developed between the sound and food.
The sound became a conditioned stimulus (CS).
The dogs eventually salivated to the sound alone.
Salivation to the sound was the conditioned response (CR).
The findings demonstrated learning through association.
Example answer
Pavlov studied salivation in dogs. Food naturally caused the dogs to salivate, so food was the unconditioned stimulus and salivation was the unconditioned response. Pavlov repeatedly presented a previously neutral stimulus, such as a sound, together with food. After repeated pairings, the dogs began to salivate when the sound was presented without food. The sound had become a conditioned stimulus and salivation to it was a conditioned response. Pavlov therefore demonstrated that behaviour can be learned through association between stimuli.
Question 6
During several medical appointments, an injection causes Zac pain and fear. Each injection is given immediately after a nurse opens a particular metal tray. After several appointments, Zac becomes frightened as soon as he hears the tray being opened.
Using your knowledge of classical conditioning, explain Zac’s fear of the sound of the tray.
[6 marks]
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Mark scheme
AO2 = 6
Award credit for accurate application of classical-conditioning terminology to Zac.
Indicative content
Before conditioning
The injection produces pain and fear naturally.
The injection/pain is the UCS.
Fear is the UCR.
The sound of the metal tray is initially a neutral stimulus.
During conditioning
The sound of the tray is repeatedly associated with the painful injection.
After conditioning
The tray sound becomes a conditioned stimulus.
Hearing the tray alone produces fear.
Fear of the tray sound is now a conditioned response.
Example answer
Before conditioning, the painful injection is an unconditioned stimulus because it naturally produces fear, the unconditioned response. The sound of the metal tray is initially a neutral stimulus because it does not naturally cause fear. During several appointments, the sound of the tray is repeatedly associated with the painful injection. As a result, the tray sound becomes a conditioned stimulus. Zac then experiences fear as a conditioned response when he hears the tray being opened, even before the injection occurs.
Question 7
A researcher records the number of drops of saliva produced by four dogs during a 30-second period. Each dog is tested when a sound is presented before and after the sound has been repeatedly paired with food.
Dog | Salivation before conditioning | Salivation after conditioning |
A | 0 | 8 |
B | 1 | 10 |
C | 0 | 9 |
D | 0 | 11 |
Calculate the mean number of drops of saliva produced after conditioning.
Use:
Mean = total of scores Ă· number of scores
Show your working.
[2 marks]
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Mark scheme
AO2 = 2
1 mark for correct working.
1 mark for the correct answer of 9.5 drops.
Working
8+10+9+11=38
Mean=38Ă·4=9.5
Answer
9.5 drops
Question 8
Using the results in the table, explain how the dogs’ behaviour supports classical conditioning.
[3 marks]
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Mark scheme
AO2 = 3
Award 1 mark each for:
Before conditioning, the sound produces little or no salivation, with scores of 0, 1, 0 and 0.
After the sound has been repeatedly paired with food, salivation increases substantially to 8, 10, 9 and 11 drops.
This supports classical conditioning because the previously neutral sound has acquired the ability to produce salivation through its association with food.
Example answer
Before conditioning, the dogs produced almost no saliva to the sound, with scores between 0 and 1 drop. After the sound had been paired with food, this increased to between 8 and 11 drops. This supports classical conditioning because the previously neutral sound became associated with food and was then able to produce a learned salivation response on its own.
Question 9
Explain the behaviourist approach. Refer to classical conditioning and Pavlov’s research in your answer.
[8 marks]
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Mark scheme
Suggested allocation: AO1 = 8
7 to 8 marks:Â Knowledge and understanding of the behaviourist approach is accurate and detailed. Classical conditioning and Pavlov's research are explained clearly and integrated effectively into the answer. Specialist terminology is used accurately.
5 to 6 marks:Â Knowledge is generally accurate and reasonably detailed. There is clear reference to classical conditioning and Pavlov, although some elements may lack development.
3 to 4 marks:Â Some relevant knowledge is present, but explanation is limited or incomplete. Reference to Pavlov or classical conditioning may be brief.
1 to 2 marks:Â Very limited relevant knowledge.
0 marks:Â No relevant content.
Indicative content
Basic assumptions
The behaviourist approach focuses on behaviour that can be observed and measured objectively.
Behaviour is largely learned through interaction with the environment.
Learning can therefore be studied scientifically under controlled conditions.
Behaviourists identify conditioning as an important mechanism through which behaviour is acquired.
Behaviourists have often used non-human animals to investigate general principles of learning.
Classical conditioning
Learning occurs through association between stimuli.
Before conditioning:
UCS naturally produces UCR.
NS does not produce the relevant response.
During conditioning:
NS is repeatedly paired with UCS.
After conditioning:
NS becomes CS.
CS produces CR.
Pavlov's research
Pavlov investigated salivation in dogs.
Food was a UCS producing salivation as a UCR.
A neutral stimulus such as a sound was repeatedly associated with food.
The sound eventually became a CS.
Dogs then salivated to the sound alone, a CR.
The research demonstrated that responses could be learned through association.
The current AQA specification explicitly places classical conditioning and Pavlov's research within the required basic assumptions of the behaviourist approach.
Example answer
The behaviourist approach assumes that behaviour is largely learned through interaction with the environment. Behaviourists focus on behaviour that can be directly observed and measured, allowing learning to be investigated using objective and controlled scientific methods. One important form of learning is classical conditioning, which occurs through association between stimuli.
Before classical conditioning, an unconditioned stimulus naturally produces an unconditioned response. A neutral stimulus does not initially produce this response. If the neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus, it can become a conditioned stimulus and produce a conditioned response on its own.
Pavlov demonstrated this using dogs. Food naturally produced salivation, so food was the unconditioned stimulus and salivation was the unconditioned response. Pavlov repeatedly paired a neutral stimulus, such as a sound, with food. Eventually the dogs salivated when the sound was presented without food. The sound had therefore become a conditioned stimulus and salivation to it was a conditioned response. Pavlov's findings supported the behaviourist view that behaviour can be learned through environmental associations.
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