Structural theories | AQA A-Level Sociology

For Specification 7192

AQA A-Level Sociology | Free Revision Notes

Estimated study time: 35 minutes

exam questions by topic 👇

Structural theories are part of the compulsory Theory and Methods content for AQA A-Level Sociology. This Structural theories A-Level Sociology revision page focuses on the importance of social structure in sociological explanations and how structural approaches can be connected to substantive topics across the course. The topic follows conflict approaches [Conflict theories] and leads directly into social action approaches [Social action theories], allowing you to develop one of AQA's key theoretical debates: the significance of social structure and social action in explaining social issues.

Learning Objectives 🎯

By the end of this revision page, you should be able to:

• Explain the place of structural theories within AQA's Theory and Methods content.

• Explain why social structure is important in sociological explanations.

• Examine how social structure can be connected to substantive areas of Sociology.

• Apply structural approaches to sociological issues across the course.

• Compare structural and social action approaches.

• Evaluate structural approaches by developing comparisons and reasoned judgements.

Revision Notes 📚

Structural theories A-Level Sociology revision: what AQA requires

AQA requires students studying Theory and Methods to examine four broad categories of sociological theory:

• consensus theories

• conflict theories

• structural theories

• social action theories.

The revision plan separates these into individual lessons. For structural theories, students are expected to explain their characteristics, examine the importance of social structure in explaining behaviour and evaluate structural approaches to Sociology.

Structural theories therefore need to be understood as part of a wider theoretical debate rather than as an isolated piece of knowledge.

What is the importance of social structure?

The AQA specification does not provide a detailed definition of social structure. However, it explicitly states that the study of Sociology should provide students with an awareness of the importance of social structure and social action in explaining social issues.

The supplied revision plan similarly places the importance of social structure at the centre of this lesson.

At the level supported by the supplied sources, a structural approach can therefore be understood as an approach that gives social structure an important role in explaining behaviour and social issues.

This is different from simply describing what an individual does. Structural explanation directs attention towards the wider social arrangements and relationships relevant to the issue being investigated.

Social structure and social action

AQA specifically requires students to understand the significance of both:

• social structure

• social action.

These form an important theoretical contrast.

The revision plan reinforces this sequence. After structural theories, students move to social action theories [Social action theories], where they examine the importance of social action in explaining behaviour and compare social action and structural approaches.

Approach named by AQA	Focus supported by the revision plan
Structural theories	The importance of social structure in explaining behaviour
Social action theories	The importance of social action in explaining behaviour
Comparison	Students should compare structural and social action approaches

⚠️ It is important not to treat these labels as interchangeable. AQA lists structural and social action theories separately and expects students to understand their significance in sociological explanation.

Social structure as a course-wide issue

Structural theory matters because the idea of structure appears throughout AQA Sociology.

The specification identifies two core themes that must run through the course:

1. socialisation, culture and identity

2. social differentiation, power and stratification.

Students must also understand:

• conflict and consensus

• social structure and social action

• the role of values.

Sociological theories and perspectives should be integral to the study of substantive topics, and students are expected to make links between different areas of the specification.

This means structural theories should not be memorised only for a Theory and Methods question. They should help you think sociologically about areas such as education, families, inequality and crime.

Applying structural approaches to education

Education provides a clear specification-supported opportunity for thinking about social structure.

AQA requires students to study:

• the role and functions of the education system

• its relationship to the economy

• its relationship to class structure

• differential educational achievement

• relationships and processes within schools

• educational policies.

This connects particularly strongly with education and class structure [Education and class structure].

A structural approach to an education question would therefore involve looking beyond the actions of a single pupil or teacher and connecting the issue to the wider structural relationships identified in the course.

For example, if a question concerns education and social class, the specification itself requires students to understand the relationship between education and class structure.

A useful application sequence is:

1. Identify the educational issue.

2. Identify the relevant structural element specified by AQA.

3. Explain how the issue is connected to that structure.

4. Use relevant sociological explanation and evidence from the Education topic.

5. Compare with an alternative explanation where appropriate.

The detailed structural theory used at stages three and four would need to come from supported teaching material, because the supplied specification does not provide it.

Applying structural approaches to families

AQA explicitly requires students who study Families and Households to examine:

the relationship of the family to the social structure and social change.

This makes families and the social structure [Families and the social structure] particularly relevant to structural theory.

Students are also required to examine the family's relationship with:

• the economy

• state policies

• gender roles

• domestic labour

• power relationships.

A structural analysis can therefore connect family life to wider social arrangements rather than considering family behaviour solely as a collection of individual choices.

Again, the specification supports the connection between family and social structure, but does not provide the detailed theoretical account that a named structural perspective might give.

Applying structural approaches to stratification and differentiation

Social structure is particularly relevant to AQA's core theme of social differentiation, power and stratification.

Students who study Stratification and Differentiation examine:

• stratification and differentiation by social class, gender, ethnicity and age

• class, status and power

• differences in life chances

• social class

• changes in structures of inequality

• social mobility.

The lesson changing structures of inequality [Changing structures of inequality] therefore provides another direct opportunity to apply structural thinking.

A student could ask:

• What structure of inequality is relevant to this issue?

• How are different social groups positioned within it?

• What relationship does the specification identify between the structure and life chances?

• How could a sociological theory explain the pattern?

These questions turn a general theoretical idea into applied sociological analysis.

Applying structural approaches to crime and deviance

Crime and Deviance provides another opportunity for synoptic application.

AQA requires students to study:

• crime and deviance

• social order and social control

• the social distribution of crime and deviance

• globalisation and crime

• crime control

• surveillance

• prevention and punishment.

The course plan later revisits theory through sociological theories and crime [Sociological theories and crime]. Students are specifically expected to apply structural and social action theories to crime and deviance and compare different theoretical explanations.

This demonstrates why structural theory is not simply a stand-alone Theory and Methods topic. It is knowledge that can be connected to substantive Sociology.

Structure, behaviour and sociological explanation

The key question in this lesson is not simply:

What happens?

Instead, structural theory raises a broader sociological question:

What importance should social structure have when explaining what happens?

This connects directly to one of AQA's stated aims for the subject. Sociology should encourage awareness of the importance of both social structure and social action when explaining social issues.

When applying structural theory, therefore, make the explanatory relationship explicit.

A weak response might say:

Social structure is important in Sociology.

A more developed response would identify a particular sociological issue, such as education and class structure, and explain how consideration of social structure changes or develops the explanation of that issue.

Structural theories and the two core themes

Structural explanations can also be connected to AQA's two compulsory core themes.

Socialisation, culture and identity

This core theme requires students to consider sociological explanations involving socialisation, culture and identity across substantive areas of Sociology.

When relevant, students can consider how the issue they are studying connects to wider social structures as well as individual behaviour.

Social differentiation, power and stratification

This core theme has particularly clear links to structural questions because students repeatedly study inequalities and relationships between social groups.

For example, the specification includes:

• educational achievement by social class, gender and ethnicity

• inequalities in health chances

• poverty, wealth and income

• class, status and power

• structures of inequality

• the social distribution of crime and deviance.

AQA expects these core themes to act as threads through the course rather than as discrete topics.

Structural theories are not the same as consensus theories

AQA lists consensus, conflict, structural and social action theories separately.

You should therefore avoid assuming that:

structural theory = consensus theory

or that:

structural theory = conflict theory

The important examination point is that they are separate theoretical categories within the specification and you should be able to use the appropriate classification accurately.

Comparing structural and social action approaches

The course plan makes comparison with social action especially important.

A clear comparison can be organised around the central explanatory issue:

Question	Structural theories lesson	Social action theories lesson
What is particularly important in explaining behaviour?	Social structure	Social action
What should students examine?	The importance of structure	The importance of action
What comparison does the plan require?	Evaluation of structural approaches	Comparison of social action and structural approaches

The detailed characteristics of social action theories are covered in the following lesson, so they should not be introduced prematurely here.

Evaluating structural approaches

Evaluation means more than describing a structural explanation and then saying that another theory disagrees.

AQA's Assessment Objective 3 (AO3) requires students to analyse and evaluate sociological theories, concepts and evidence in order to:

• present arguments

• make judgements

• draw conclusions.

1. Compare structure with action

The most direct specification-supported comparison is between structural and social action theories.

Ask:

• How important is social structure in explaining this issue?

• What would examining social action add to the explanation?

• Does the issue require consideration of both structure and action?

The substantive answer will depend on the theory and evidence studied.

2. Apply the theory to evidence

AQA expects students to examine both sociological explanations and evidence within substantive topics.

A structural explanation therefore becomes more convincing if it can be effectively related to the evidence being discussed.

Conversely, evaluation can examine whether the explanation adequately accounts for the particular issue or evidence in the question.

3. Compare different sociological explanations

Structural theory sits within a broader theoretical framework that also includes consensus, conflict and social action theories.

Developed evaluation should establish exactly how and why explanations differ rather than simply naming an opposing perspective.

4. Reach a judgement

A strong evaluative conclusion should answer the question set.

For example:

• How important is social structure for explaining this issue?

• Which explanation has provided the stronger account?

• What does comparison with social action reveal?

• Does a convincing sociological explanation need to consider more than one theoretical approach?

The conclusion should follow from the analysis already developed rather than introducing a new argument.

Theory and methods

Structural theories also sit within the wider relationship between sociological theory and research.

Later, the relationship between theory and methods [The relationship between theory and methods] asks students to examine how theoretical perspectives may influence methodological choices and evaluate the extent to which theory determines the methods sociologists use.

This helps connect structural theory to the wider Theory and Methods unit.

Exam application

AQA's assessment objectives provide a useful way of organising structural theory answers:

• AO1: demonstrate accurate knowledge and understanding of sociological theories and concepts.

• AO2: apply that knowledge to the issue in the question.

• AO3: analyse and evaluate, developing arguments, judgements and conclusions.

For a structural theory response:

AO1 might involve explaining the relevant structural argument.

AO2 requires you to connect that argument directly to the sociological issue, such as education, families or crime.

AO3 requires you to analyse and evaluate the explanation, perhaps through comparison with social action or another relevant sociological explanation, before reaching a supported judgement.

📌 Exam focus: Do not allow "social structure" to become a vague phrase. Identify the specific issue and explain exactly how the relevant structural argument helps explain it.

Key Words 🔑

Key word	Student-friendly definition	How it may be used in an exam
Structural theories	A category of sociological theories that AQA requires students to study, with this lesson focusing on the importance of social structure in explaining behaviour.	Explain and evaluate structural approaches and apply them to sociological issues.
Social structure	A key element that AQA requires students to consider when explaining social issues. The supplied specification does not provide a more detailed formal definition.	Show how a sociological issue relates to wider social structure.
Social action	AQA identifies social action alongside social structure as important in explaining social issues.	Compare the importance of action with structural explanations.
Consensus theories	One of the four broad categories of theory specified by AQA.	Distinguish consensus theory from structural theory and use it where relevant to theoretical comparison.
Conflict theories	Another category of theory required by AQA.	Compare sociological explanations where relevant.
Socialisation, culture and identity	One of AQA's two core themes running throughout the course.	Link theoretical explanations to substantive sociological topics.
Social differentiation, power and stratification	AQA's second compulsory core theme.	Connect theory to inequality, power and differences between social groups.
AO3	Analysis and evaluation of sociological theories, concepts, evidence and methods in order to make arguments, judgements and conclusions.	Develop comparisons and reach a supported judgement rather than simply describing a theory.

Common Mistakes ⚠️

Mistake: Assuming structural theory and consensus theory mean the same thing

Why this is incorrect: AQA lists consensus, conflict, structural and social action theories as separate categories of Theory and Methods content.

How to improve: Use the theoretical labels carefully. Do not substitute one for another simply because theories may be studied near each other.

Mistake: Describing individual behaviour without explaining structure

Why this is incorrect: The learning objective specifically requires students to examine the importance of social structure in explaining behaviour.

How to improve: Identify the wider structural issue relevant to the question, then explain its relationship to behaviour rather than focusing only on individual actions.

Mistake: Using "social structure" as an unexplained phrase

Why this is incorrect: Simply inserting terminology does not demonstrate sociological explanation.

How to improve: Connect structure to the actual substantive issue. For example, an education response could link directly to the specification's requirement to examine education's relationship with class structure.

Mistake: Forgetting social action

Why this is incorrect: AQA requires students to understand the significance of both social structure and social action.

How to improve: Use social action theories [Social action theories] to develop comparison and evaluation once you have established the structural explanation.

Mistake: Treating theory as separate from substantive Sociology

Why this is incorrect: AQA requires theories and perspectives to be integral elements of topic study and expects students to draw links between areas of subject content.

How to improve: Practise applying structural thinking to education, families, stratification, crime or another substantive area you study.

Mistake: Inventing characteristics of structural approaches

Why this is incorrect: The supplied specification names structural theories but does not provide detailed characteristics, named thinkers or individual structural perspectives.

How to improve: Use supported classroom material for the detailed content. When working only from this specification, restrict claims to what the source actually establishes.

Exam-Style Questions ✍️

Question 1

Identify the theoretical approach that AQA contrasts with social structure when discussing explanations of social issues. [1 mark]

Question 2

Identify two of the four broad categories of sociological theory specified by AQA, other than structural theories. [2 marks]

Question 3

Outline two substantive areas in the AQA Sociology specification in which social structure is explicitly relevant. [4 marks]

Question 4

Explain why social structure is an important issue within AQA Theory and Methods. [6 marks]

Question 5

Item A

A sociologist is investigating educational inequality. The sociologist is interested in the relationship between education and class structure rather than explaining educational experiences only in terms of the actions of individual pupils.

Using Item A, explain how consideration of social structure could contribute to the sociological study of education. [6 marks]

Question 6

Item B

A student argues that a sociological explanation of family life should examine the relationship between the family and the wider social structure. Another explanation places greater importance on social action.

Using Item B and your knowledge of Theory and Methods, analyse the importance of comparing structural and social action approaches. [10 marks]

Question 7

Evaluate the usefulness of structural approaches when explaining sociological issues. [10 marks]

Answers and Mark Scheme

Question 1

Award one mark for:

• social action.

Question 2

Award one mark for each, maximum two marks:

• consensus theories

• conflict theories

• social action theories.

Question 3

Award up to two marks for each developed example, maximum four marks.

Specification-supported examples include:

• Education: students must examine the relationship between education and class structure.

• Families and Households: students must examine the relationship of the family to the social structure and social change.

• Stratification and Differentiation: students examine changes in structures of inequality.

• Crime and Deviance: the revision plan requires students to apply structural theories to crime and deviance.

One mark may be awarded for identifying an appropriate area, with a further mark for explaining its connection to social structure.

Question 4

Indicative content may include:

• AQA requires structural theories as compulsory Theory and Methods content.

• The specification states that students should understand the significance of social structure and social action.

• One of the aims of A-Level Sociology is awareness of the importance of social structure and social action when explaining social issues.

• Sociological theories should be connected to substantive areas of the course.

• Structural thinking can therefore be applied to areas such as education, families, stratification and crime.

Higher marks require developed explanation rather than a list.

Question 5

Possible content includes:

• Item A specifically identifies the relationship between education and class structure.

• The specification requires this relationship to be studied as part of Education.

• A structural approach would therefore examine the educational issue in relation to wider social structure rather than restricting the explanation to individual pupil behaviour.

• The student could connect theoretical explanation to sociological evidence about education.

• This demonstrates AO2 because theoretical knowledge is being applied to the issue in Item A.

A stronger answer develops the connection between the item and structural explanation rather than merely repeating "class structure".

Question 6

A developed answer should recognise that AQA specifically identifies both social structure and social action as significant in explaining social issues.

Possible analysis includes:

• Structural theories focus this lesson on the importance of social structure in explaining behaviour.

• The following lesson examines the importance of social action.

• Comparing the two can reveal different ways of explaining the same sociological issue.

• Item B concerns family life, and the specification explicitly requires students to examine the relationship between family and social structure.

• A comparison should explain how the two approaches differ rather than merely stating that they disagree.

• Evaluation should lead towards a judgement about the importance of the different approaches to the particular issue.

Higher-level responses maintain focus on the comparison in Item B and develop an argument.

Question 7

Because the supplied specification does not provide detailed structural perspectives, named theorists or specific criticisms, an accurate response based only on the supplied sources should evaluate at the level supported by those sources.

Indicative content includes:

• structural theories are a compulsory part of AQA Theory and Methods

• social structure is explicitly identified as important in explaining social issues

• structural approaches can be connected to substantive issues across the course

• examples include education and class structure, families and social structure, and structures of inequality

• structural approaches can be compared with social action theories

• sociological explanations should be related to relevant evidence

• a judgement should consider the importance of social structure in relation to the particular issue being explained.