Models of health and illness | AQA A-Level Sociology

For Specification 7192

AQA A-Level Sociology | Free Revision Notes

Estimated study time: 45–60 minutes

exam questions by topic 👇

The models of health and illness A-Level Sociology revision topic develops your understanding of the different ways health and illness can be interpreted and explained. AQA explicitly requires students studying Health to understand both the social construction of health, illness, disability and the body and models of health and illness. This lesson therefore builds directly on the social construction of health and illness [The social construction of health and illness] and the social construction of disability and the body [The social construction of disability and the body], with a particular focus on comparing assumptions, explanations and usefulness.

Learning Objectives 🎯

By the end of this revision page, you should be able to:

• Explain what is meant by different models of health and illness.

• Compare the assumptions made by different models.

• Compare how different models explain health and illness.

• Analyse how different models may lead to different interpretations of the same health issue.

• Evaluate the usefulness of models for understanding health and illness.

Revision Notes 📚

Models of health and illness A-Level Sociology revision focus

AQA requires students studying the Health option to be familiar with sociological explanations of:

• the social construction of health

• the social construction of illness

• the social construction of disability

• the social construction of the body

• models of health and illness.

The revision plan gives this requirement its own lesson and asks students to:

1. explain different models

2. compare their assumptions and explanations

3. evaluate their usefulness.

What is a model of health and illness?

Within the scope of the supplied material, a model of health and illness can be understood as a way of interpreting and explaining what health and illness mean.

Different models can potentially differ in:

• the assumptions they make about health and illness

• what they regard as important when explaining health

• what they regard as important when explaining illness

• how they understand the causes or significance of health problems

• the kinds of explanations they prioritise.

The important examination skill is therefore not simply remembering labels. You need to understand the assumptions and explanations associated with each model you have been taught from specification-aligned course materials.

Assumptions

An assumption is an underlying idea that an explanation takes as its starting point.

When comparing models of health and illness, ask:

• What does the model assume health is?

• What does it assume illness is?

• What factors does it treat as most significant?

• What does it appear to regard as less important?

• How does it understand the relationship between the individual and wider society?

These questions help you move beyond simply describing a model.

For example, a weak comparison might say:

“Model A and Model B are different.”

A stronger comparison would identify how their starting assumptions differ and explain why those differences produce different accounts of health and illness.

Explanations

The second learning objective requires you to compare the explanations offered by different models.

An explanation tells us how or why something happens.

When revising a model, separate its assumptions from its explanation:

Assumptions	Explanations
What the model takes for granted or treats as important	How the model accounts for health or illness
The model's starting position	The conclusions that follow from that starting position
Shapes what the model looks for	Shapes how health problems are interpreted

This distinction is particularly useful in extended writing.

You may know what a model says without explaining why it reaches that conclusion. Higher-quality Sociology answers make the reasoning clear.

Models and the social construction of health

The previous lesson examined how definitions of health and illness may be socially constructed.

That remains relevant here.

Understanding the social construction of health and illness [The social construction of health and illness] reminds you that definitions of being healthy or ill need not automatically be treated as socially fixed.

Different models may therefore provide different ways of:

• defining health

• defining illness

• identifying what should be explained

• interpreting the significance of a health condition.

This is why models should be compared, rather than simply memorised separately.

Models and the body

The previous lesson also considered the social construction of disability and the body [The social construction of disability and the body].

This creates another useful analytical question:

Does a model concentrate mainly on the individual body, wider social processes, or some relationship between them?

Comparing models effectively

Comparison is much more than writing one paragraph about one model followed by another paragraph about a second.

A genuine comparison makes the relationship between them explicit.

A useful comparison structure is:

1. Identify the issue on which the models differ.

2. Explain Model A's position.

3. Explain Model B's position.

4. State the difference or similarity directly.

5. Explain why the difference matters.

For example:

“The models differ in what they regard as the most important explanation of illness. Model A prioritises X, whereas Model B prioritises Y. This means they would interpret the same health issue differently because...”

You would then replace X and Y with accurate content from the models you have been taught.

A comparison framework

Once you have the named models from approved course material, revise them using a table such as this:

Question to ask	Model 1	Model 2
How does it define health?	Add from approved course material	Add from approved course material
How does it define illness?	Add from approved course material	Add from approved course material
What assumptions does it make?	Add from approved course material	Add from approved course material
What factors does it prioritise?	Add from approved course material	Add from approved course material
What does it explain particularly well?	Add from approved course material	Add from approved course material
What may it overlook?	Add from approved course material	Add from approved course material

🚨 Revision tip: Do not complete a comparison table from memory until you are confident that the characteristics belong to the correct model. Mixing together the assumptions of different models makes evaluation very difficult.

From comparison to evaluation

The third learning objective requires you to evaluate the usefulness of different models.

Evaluation asks how far an explanation helps us understand health and illness.

Useful evaluative questions include:

• What does this model explain effectively?

• Is its explanation too narrow?

• Does it overlook factors another model considers important?

• Can it explain all aspects of health and illness equally well?

• Does another model provide an alternative explanation?

• Is it more useful to combine insights from different approaches?

• What conclusion can be reached about its overall usefulness?

Do not confuse evaluation with simply listing disadvantages.

Evaluation should involve a judgement.

Avoiding one-sided evaluation

Suppose an answer argues that a particular model overlooks an important aspect of health.

That is potentially useful AO3, but the point needs development.

A stronger structure is:

Claim → explanation → consequence → comparison → judgement

For example:

The model may be limited because it gives relatively little attention to X. This matters because X may influence how health and illness are understood. An alternative model that includes X may therefore provide a broader explanation. However, the first model may still be useful for explaining Y.

Again, X and Y must come from accurate course material.

This produces genuine evaluation because the answer considers both the strength and limitation of an explanation.

Models do not have to be treated as completely separate

When comparing models, avoid assuming that one explanation must always be entirely correct and another entirely wrong.

A useful evaluative question is whether different models may focus on different dimensions of health and illness.

If so, one model may be particularly useful for explaining one aspect while another may illuminate something different.

The important task is to justify the judgement sociologically.

Applying models to an unfamiliar issue

AQA's assessment objectives require students to apply sociological knowledge to different issues.

If an item describes a health issue, do not simply reproduce everything you know about a model.

Instead:

1. Identify something specific in the item.

2. Select a relevant feature of the model.

3. Explain the connection.

4. Show how the model would interpret the issue.

5. Where required, compare this with another explanation.

This is the difference between knowledge and application.

Models and health inequalities

After studying models, the Health revision plan moves into inequalities in health chances.

The next lesson is social class and health chances [Social class and health chances], followed by gender and health chances [Gender and health chances] and ethnicity, region and health chances [Ethnicity, region and health chances].

Models of health and illness can provide a conceptual foundation for those topics because different ways of understanding health may affect the kinds of explanations sociologists develop.

However, do not turn a question specifically about models into a general essay about health inequalities.

Linking models to the wider AQA themes

AQA requires two core themes to run throughout the course:

• socialisation, culture and identity

• social differentiation, power and stratification.

The specification also requires students to understand the importance of:

• conflict and consensus

• social structure and social action

• values.

These themes can help you analyse models.

Social structure and social action

Ask whether a model gives greater importance to:

• wider social structures

• individual action

• or some relationship between the two.

Social differentiation and stratification

Ask whether the model helps explain differences between social groups.

This will become especially important when you study social class and health chances [Social class and health chances].

Power

Ask whether the model considers how social power may affect definitions or experiences of health and illness.

Values

Ask whether definitions of health and illness involve assumptions about what should count as normal, healthy or unhealthy.

You should only make specific claims about individual models where they are supported by the course material you have been given.

Evaluating usefulness

A model can be described as useful if it helps sociologists understand or explain health and illness.

However, usefulness should be treated as something that needs to be demonstrated.

A useful evaluation checklist is:

Breadth

Does the model account for a broad range of influences, or is its explanation relatively narrow?

Explanatory power

Does it clearly explain why health and illness occur or how they are understood?

Social context

Does it account for the social setting in which health and illness occur?

Differences between groups

Can it help explain why experiences may differ socially?

Alternative explanations

Does another model explain something that this model overlooks?

Overall judgement

Is the model most useful on its own, or does understanding health require more than one kind of explanation?

These criteria help you turn description into AO3.

How this topic may be examined

AQA's assessment objectives require students to demonstrate knowledge and understanding, application, and analysis and evaluation.

For this lesson:

AO1 may involve accurately explaining the assumptions and explanations of particular models.

AO2 may involve applying a model to an issue presented in an item.

AO3 may involve comparing models, identifying strengths and limitations and reaching a judgement about their usefulness.

A strong extended response therefore tends to follow this pattern:

model → explanation → application → comparison → evaluation → judgement

Rather than:

model → description → another model → description

That shift from separate descriptions to an integrated argument is crucial.

Key Words 🔑

Key word	Student-friendly definition	How it may be used in an exam
Model of health and illness	A way of understanding and explaining health and illness.	Explain and compare the different models you have studied.
Assumption	An underlying idea that an explanation takes as its starting point.	Compare what different models assume about health and illness.
Explanation	An account of how or why something happens.	Explain how different models account for health and illness.
Social construction	The idea that definitions and meanings may be shaped within a social context.	Connect models to earlier learning about definitions of health and illness.
Social structure	Wider patterns and arrangements within society that may influence social life.	Consider whether a model emphasises broader social influences.
Social action	The actions and meanings of individuals within social life.	Compare structural and individual emphases where relevant.
Social differentiation	Social differences between individuals or groups.	Consider whether a model helps explain different health experiences.
Evaluation	Assessing the strengths, limitations and overall usefulness of an explanation.	Required when judging how useful different models are for understanding health.

Common Mistakes ⚠️

Mistake: Listing models without comparing them

Why this is incorrect: One of the lesson objectives explicitly requires comparison of their assumptions and explanations.

How to improve: Use direct comparative language such as “whereas”, “in contrast”, “similarly” and “this differs because”.

Mistake: Describing assumptions without explaining their consequences

Why this is incorrect: An assumption matters because it shapes how a model explains health and illness.

How to improve: Use the chain:

assumption → explanation → interpretation of health or illness

Mistake: Treating evaluation as a list of weaknesses

Why this is incorrect: Evaluation requires analysis and judgement, not simply criticism.

How to improve: Explain what the model does well, what it may overlook and whether another model provides a stronger explanation.

Mistake: Saying one model is automatically correct

Why this is incorrect: The lesson requires comparison and evaluation. Simply declaring a winner does not demonstrate why one explanation is more useful.

How to improve: Use evidence and reasoning to judge what each model explains particularly effectively.

Mistake: Ignoring the question or source item

Why this is incorrect: AQA requires students to apply sociological concepts and explanations to different issues.

How to improve: Select something specific from the item, connect it to the relevant feature of the model and explain that link.

Mistake: Mixing characteristics between models

Why this is incorrect: If assumptions from different models are confused, comparisons and evaluation become inaccurate.

How to improve: Revise each model using the same headings: definition, assumptions, explanation, strengths and limitations.

Mistake: Adding unsupported named models or sociologists

Why this is incorrect: The supplied specification and revision plan do not name particular models or sociologists.

How to improve: Use only named content that appears in reliable, specification-aligned teaching material.

Exam-Style Questions ✍️

Question 1

What is meant by a model of health and illness? [2 marks]

Question 2

Explain the difference between an assumption and an explanation when studying models of health and illness. [4 marks]

Question 3

Explain two features that could be used to compare different models of health and illness. [4 marks]

Question 4

Explain why identifying the assumptions made by a model is important when evaluating its explanation of health and illness. [6 marks]

Question 5

Explain how the concept of the social construction of health and illness may be relevant when comparing models of health and illness. [6 marks]

Question 6

Analyse why two different models of health and illness might produce different interpretations of the same health issue. [8 marks]

Question 7

Evaluate the view that comparing more than one model can improve sociological understanding of health and illness. [10 marks]

Question 8

A student writes:

“Model A is better than Model B because it gives a different explanation.”

Analyse why this is not, by itself, an effective evaluation of models of health and illness. [6 marks]

Answers and indicative mark scheme

Question 1

Award up to 2 marks for an answer explaining that a model of health and illness is a way of understanding or explaining health and illness.

Question 2

An assumption is an underlying starting idea used by an explanation.

An explanation is an account of how or why health or illness is understood or occurs.

For full marks, the answer should establish the relationship between the two, for example that assumptions influence the explanations a model develops.

Question 3

Possible comparison points include:

• definitions of health

• definitions of illness

• underlying assumptions

• factors prioritised by the model

• explanations offered

• aspects of health the model explains well

• factors the model may overlook.

Credit two developed points.

Question 4

Indicative content:

• Assumptions establish the model's starting position.

• They influence what factors the model regards as important.

• This shapes the explanation the model produces.

• Understanding assumptions therefore allows the student to identify why two models may reach different conclusions.

• Assumptions can also be questioned during evaluation.

Higher-quality answers should demonstrate the chain between assumption, explanation and evaluation.

Question 5

Indicative content:

• The social-construction approach examines how definitions and meanings may be socially shaped.

• Models may provide different understandings of what health and illness mean.

• Comparing them can therefore involve examining whether definitions are treated in the same way.

• A model can be analysed according to the extent to which it considers wider social context.

Answers should remain focused on the relationship between models and social construction.

Question 6

A developed answer should explain that models may begin from different assumptions.

Different assumptions can lead models to:

• prioritise different factors

• define the issue differently

• offer different explanations

• focus attention on different aspects of the same problem.

The strongest answers will explain the chain:

different assumptions → different priorities → different explanations → different interpretations

Question 7

Indicative content could include:

• Different models may highlight different aspects of health and illness.

• Comparison can expose the assumptions underlying each explanation.

• One model may identify something another overlooks.

• Using more than one perspective may therefore broaden understanding.

• However, the usefulness of comparison depends on the explanatory value of the models themselves.

• Simply having several different explanations does not automatically make understanding more accurate.

• A reasoned judgement should assess whether different models provide complementary insights or competing explanations.

Question 8

The statement is weak because saying that a model is different does not establish that it is better.

A stronger evaluation would need to explain:

• what Model A explains

• what assumptions it makes

• what Model B explains differently

• the strengths and limitations of each explanation

• why these differences affect their usefulness

• which model provides the more convincing explanation in the context of the question.

The conclusion should follow from the comparison rather than simply being asserted.