The self, identity and difference | AQA A-Level Sociology

For Specification 7192

AQA A-Level Sociology | Free Revision Notes

Estimated study time: 45 minutes

exam questions by topic 👇

The self, identity and difference are central to the Culture and Identity option in AQA A-Level Sociology. This The self, identity and difference A-Level Sociology revision page examines the specification requirement to understand identity and difference as both socially caused and socially constructed. It builds directly on socialisation [The socialisation process] and the role of socialising agencies [Agencies of socialisation], before preparing you to examine how identity relates to particular social characteristics in contemporary society.

Learning Objectives 🎯

By the end of this revision page, you should be able to:

• Explain where the self and identity fit within AQA Culture and Identity.

• Explain the distinction AQA makes between identity and difference being socially caused and socially constructed.

• Examine how socialisation connects with the development of the self and identity.

• Analyse relationships between identity, difference and wider social characteristics.

• Apply the concepts of identity and difference to contemporary social life.

AQA explicitly requires students to study the self, identity and difference as both socially caused and socially constructed.

Revision Notes 📚

The self, identity and difference A-Level Sociology revision

Within Culture and Identity, AQA requires students to be familiar with sociological explanations of:

• different conceptions of culture

• the socialisation process and agencies of socialisation

• the self, identity and difference as both socially caused and socially constructed

• the relationship of identity to age, disability, ethnicity, gender, nationality, sexuality and social class in contemporary society

• the relationship of identity to production, consumption and globalisation.

This gives the study of identity a particularly important position within the topic. It connects earlier work on culture and socialisation with later lessons examining different aspects of identity.

What is the self?

AQA explicitly requires students to study the self, but the supplied specification does not provide a formal sociological definition of the term.

What is identity?

Identity is one of the central concepts running throughout the AQA Sociology specification. It forms part of the course-wide theme:

socialisation, culture and identity.

Within Culture and Identity, AQA requires considerably more than simply recognising the word. Students must examine identity:

1. alongside the self and difference

2. as socially caused

3. as socially constructed

4. in relation to a range of social characteristics

5. in relation to production, consumption and globalisation.

What is difference?

AQA groups difference with the self and identity and requires students to consider it as both socially caused and socially constructed.

The specification does not define difference or identify a single type of difference that students must focus on.

However, the next specification requirement examines identity in relation to:

• age

• disability

• ethnicity

• gender

• nationality

• sexuality

• social class.

These provide important areas in which identity and social difference are subsequently explored.

The revision plan develops these through age and disability [Age and disability identities], ethnicity and nationality [Ethnicity and nationality], gender and sexuality [Gender and sexuality] and social class [Social class and identity].

Identity and difference as socially caused

AQA explicitly requires students to examine identity and difference as socially caused.

At the level established by the specification, this requires students to consider identity and difference in relation to social influences and social processes, rather than studying them entirely separately from society.

This connects closely with the preceding specification requirement concerning:

• the socialisation process

• the role of agencies of socialisation.

The sequence within the specification is therefore important:

culture → socialisation → agencies of socialisation → self, identity and difference

This is a useful way to organise the content, although it is not a causal theory supplied by AQA.

Linking socialisation and identity

Socialisation, culture and identity form one of the two core themes that AQA requires students to apply across Sociology.

This establishes an important relationship between the previous lessons and the present one.

The specification requires:

Earlier content	Current content
Different conceptions of culture	The self
Socialisation process	Identity
Agencies of socialisation	Difference
Socialisation, culture and identity as a core theme	Identity and difference as socially caused and constructed

Students should therefore avoid revising socialisation and identity as completely unrelated concepts.

The specification does not, however, provide a detailed sociological theory explaining exactly how socialisation produces the self or particular identities.

Identity and difference as socially constructed

AQA also requires identity and difference to be examined as socially constructed.

This is a separate wording from socially caused, so students should recognise both elements of the specification requirement.

Socially caused and socially constructed compared

AQA places the two ideas together but does not formally explain their distinction.

At the level supported by the source, they can be organised as follows:

Specification wording	What students must recognise
Socially caused	Identity and difference must be considered in relation to social causes and influences.
Socially constructed	Identity and difference must also be considered as socially constructed rather than treating them only as fixed individual characteristics.
Both	The specification explicitly requires both approaches to be considered.

Identity and age

After introducing the self, identity and difference, AQA requires students to examine identity in relation to age in contemporary society.

This means age is not simply a separate topic. It is one dimension through which the broader concept of identity must be explored.

You will develop this directly in age identity [Age and disability identities].

The specification also includes disability within the same requirement, but it does not state how either age or disability shapes identity. Those explanations require further specification-compatible sociological material.

Identity and disability

Disability is another factor that AQA explicitly requires students to relate to identity.

This creates a direct link between the general sociological study of identity in this lesson and the more focused examination of different identities later in the topic.

However, the specification does not provide:

• a particular explanation of disability identity

• evidence about disability and identity

• named theorists or studies.

Those substantive explanations are therefore not introduced here.

Identity, ethnicity and nationality

AQA requires students to consider identity in relation to both ethnicity and nationality in contemporary society.

These are listed separately within the specification, so students should not assume that ethnicity and nationality are interchangeable concepts.

The revision plan develops these together in ethnic and national identities [Ethnicity and nationality].

Identity, gender and sexuality

The specification separately identifies gender and sexuality as aspects that must be related to identity in contemporary society.

Again, the significance for this introductory lesson is the broader sociological principle: the study of identity leads into examination of identity in relation to particular social characteristics.

The detailed relationship is developed through gendered and sexual identities [Gender and sexuality].

AQA does not provide specific theories or evidence concerning these identities within the specification itself.

Identity and social class

Social class is also explicitly included within the specification's study of identity.

This provides a direct connection between Culture and Identity and AQA's wider core theme of:

social differentiation, power and stratification.

The relationship between class and identity is developed separately in class identity [Social class and identity].

The specification establishes that this relationship is required but does not provide a particular explanation of how class identities develop.

Identity, production, consumption and globalisation

AQA's final Culture and Identity specification requirement concerns:

the relationship of identity to production, consumption and globalisation. 

This extends the study of identity beyond demographic or social characteristics.

Students must eventually consider identity in relation to:

• production

• consumption

• globalisation.

These relationships are developed in production, consumption and globalisation [Production, consumption, globalisation and identity].

The specification itself does not provide theories explaining these relationships, so they should not be invented here.

Identity within the two core themes

AQA identifies two core themes running throughout A-Level Sociology:

1. socialisation, culture and identity

2. social differentiation, power and stratification.

The self, identity and difference have particularly clear connections to both.

Socialisation, culture and identity

Identity forms part of the title of this core theme. The sequence of Culture and Identity also directly links cultural conceptions, socialisation and identity.

Social differentiation, power and stratification

The specification subsequently connects identity to age, disability, ethnicity, gender, nationality, sexuality and social class.

Students should therefore recognise that questions about identity can also involve wider questions about social differences.

Identity, social structure and social action

AQA states that students should understand the significance of social structure and social action throughout the course. The Theory and Methods specification also requires both structural and social action theories.

This provides a wider theoretical context for considering the self and identity.

The wording socially caused and socially constructed encourages students to consider relationships between individuals and society, but the supplied specification does not identify particular theories that must be applied specifically to identity.

These broader theoretical approaches are examined separately through structural approaches [Structural theories] and social action approaches [Social action theories].

Contemporary society

AQA states that the central focus of study should be UK society today, with comparative dimensions where relevant and consideration of the UK's globalised context.

The Culture and Identity specification reinforces this by explicitly requiring the relationship of identity to age, disability, ethnicity, gender, nationality, sexuality and social class in contemporary society.

Students should therefore be prepared to apply identity concepts to contemporary sociological issues rather than treating identity solely as an abstract concept.

The specification does not supply particular contemporary examples, so examples need to come from reliable specification-compatible teaching material.

Sociological explanations of the self and identity

AQA expects students studying Topics in Sociology to examine both evidence and sociological explanations of the listed content.

A full study of this lesson would therefore require sociological explanations of:

• the self

• identity

• difference

• their social causes

• their social construction.

Applying the self, identity and difference in an examination

AQA assesses three assessment objectives across A-Level Sociology:

• AO1: knowledge and understanding of sociological theories, concepts, evidence and research methods

• AO2: application of sociological theories, concepts, evidence and research methods to issues

• AO3: analysis and evaluation, including presenting arguments, making judgements and drawing conclusions.

For this lesson, these assessment objectives have different implications.

AO1: Explain accurately

You should be able to explain relevant sociological approaches to:

• the self

• identity

• difference

• social causes

• social construction.

⚠️ Merely saying that "identity is socially constructed" without explaining what the sociological explanation means would provide limited development.

AO2: Apply identity to a context

A question may present information concerning social identities or differences.

Application requires you to connect details from the context with relevant sociological knowledge rather than simply repeating the Item.

For example, if an Item identifies differences connected with age or social class, a relevant response should explain how those details connect with the sociological study of identity.

AO3: Analyse relationships

Analysis may involve examining:

• links between socialisation and identity

• socially caused and socially constructed explanations

• different aspects of identity

• identity and social differentiation

• the relationship between individuals and wider society.

A developed response should explain connections, rather than presenting unrelated pieces of knowledge.

Key Words 🔑

Key word	Student-friendly definition	How it may be used in an exam
Self	A concept AQA requires students to study alongside identity and difference. The supplied specification does not provide a fuller formal definition.	Explain using appropriate sociological approaches when discussing Culture and Identity.
Identity	A central concept within the core theme of socialisation, culture and identity, examined in relation to social characteristics and wider social processes.	Apply to questions about different aspects of contemporary social identity.
Difference	A concept AQA requires students to examine alongside the self and identity as socially caused and constructed.	Use when analysing how identity relates to differences within society.
Socially caused	AQA requires identity and difference to be considered in relation to social causes and influences.	Use when explaining social influences on identity and difference.
Socially constructed	AQA requires identity and difference to be examined as socially constructed. The specification does not define the detailed process.	Use when explaining sociological approaches that treat identity and difference as connected to society.
Socialisation	A required process studied immediately before the self, identity and difference.	Link earlier socialisation content to sociological explanations of identity.
Social differentiation	Part of AQA's second core theme alongside power and stratification.	Connect identity to wider social differences where relevant.
Social structure	A course-wide sociological concept AQA requires students to understand.	May be relevant when examining social influences on individuals.
Social action	A course-wide concept considered alongside social structure.	Relevant to wider debates about individuals and society.

Common Mistakes ⚠️

Mistake: Treating identity as entirely individual

Why this is incorrect: AQA specifically requires the self, identity and difference to be studied as socially caused and socially constructed.

How to improve: When explaining identity, make its relationship with wider social influences explicit rather than discussing only personal characteristics.

Mistake: Treating "socially caused" and "socially constructed" as one specification point

Why this is incorrect: AQA explicitly includes both terms.

How to improve: Make sure your revision covers each element. If a question allows it, distinguish the explanation based on social causes from the explanation based on social construction.

Mistake: Explaining only socialisation

Why this is incorrect: Although socialisation directly precedes this topic, AQA separately requires students to understand the self, identity and difference.

How to improve: Use socialisation as a connection rather than allowing it to replace explanation of identity itself.

Mistake: Treating ethnicity and nationality as the same aspect of identity

Why this is incorrect: AQA lists ethnicity and nationality separately.

How to improve: Keep the two specification terms distinct and use appropriate sociological explanations for each when you study them in detail.

Mistake: Forgetting disability or sexuality

Why this is incorrect: Both are explicitly included alongside age, ethnicity, gender, nationality and social class in the identity requirement.

How to improve: Learn the complete specification list rather than concentrating only on the most familiar aspects of identity.

Mistake: Assuming identity is only linked to social characteristics

Why this is incorrect: AQA additionally requires identity to be considered in relation to production, consumption and globalisation.

How to improve: Treat identity as a broader specification concept that connects with several dimensions of contemporary social life.

Mistake: Inventing named theories of identity

Why this is incorrect: The supplied specification does not identify particular sociologists, studies or theories that explain the self and identity.

How to improve: Only use named sociological material that has been established as accurate and specification-compatible by your course resources.

Exam-Style Questions ✍️

The specification establishes that the self, identity and difference must be examined as socially caused and socially constructed, but it does not provide named theories or studies. These original questions therefore remain within the material securely supported by the supplied sources.

Question 1

Identify one way in which AQA requires identity and difference to be understood. [1 mark]

Question 2

State two social characteristics that AQA requires students to relate to identity. [2 marks]

Question 3

Outline two ways in which the study of identity connects with other areas of AQA Culture and Identity. [4 marks]

Question 4

Item A

A sociologist rejects the idea that people's identities can be understood solely by examining individuals in isolation. The researcher instead examines how social influences contribute to identities and how differences between groups may be shaped within society.

Using Item A, explain two ways in which this approach reflects the AQA Culture and Identity specification. [6 marks]

Question 5

Explain two reasons why socialisation is relevant to the sociological study of identity. [6 marks]

Question 6

Item B

Two sociologists are studying identity in contemporary UK society. One focuses on social influences that may contribute to differences between people. The other is interested in the idea that identity and difference are socially constructed.

Using Item B and your knowledge of the AQA specification, analyse two ways in which the sociologists' approaches reflect required Culture and Identity content. [8 marks]

Question 7

Analyse how the study of the self, identity and difference connects with social differentiation within the AQA specification. [8 marks]

Question 8

Evaluate the view that identity can be understood independently of wider society. [10 marks]

Answers and indicative mark scheme

Question 1

Accept either:

• socially caused

• socially constructed.

Award 1 mark for one correct response.

Question 2

Award 1 mark each, up to 2 marks, for any two of:

• age

• disability

• ethnicity

• gender

• nationality

• sexuality

• social class.

Question 3

Award up to 2 marks for each developed connection.

Possible content includes:

• Identity belongs to the core theme of socialisation, culture and identity.

• The study of identity immediately follows the socialisation process and agencies of socialisation.

• Identity and difference must be considered as socially caused.

• Identity and difference must also be considered as socially constructed.

• Identity must subsequently be related to a range of social characteristics.

• Identity must also be related to production, consumption and globalisation.

Two developed connections are required for full marks.

Question 4

Possible applications include:

• Item A rejects examining individuals in isolation, which connects with AQA's requirement to examine identity as socially caused.

• Its reference to social influences can be applied to the socially caused aspect of identity and difference.

• Its focus on how differences may be shaped within society can be connected with the requirement to examine identity and difference as socially constructed.

• Its reference to differences between groups can be connected with the wider core theme of social differentiation, power and stratification.

For higher marks, students should use the wording of Item A directly and explain the connection rather than reproducing specification terminology.

Question 5

Possible developed responses include:

• Socialisation is directly linked with identity through AQA's core theme of socialisation, culture and identity.

• The socialisation process and agencies of socialisation appear immediately before the self, identity and difference in the Culture and Identity specification.

• Socialisation provides a wider social context within which identity can be examined as socially caused.

• AQA encourages students to draw links between different areas of Sociology.

Two explained connections are required for full marks.

Question 6

A strong response could develop the following:

Sociologist one: The focus on social influences connects with AQA's requirement to examine identity and difference as socially caused. This also links with the preceding specification requirement concerning socialisation and its agencies.

Sociologist two: The focus on identities being produced or shaped socially directly corresponds with AQA's separate requirement to examine identity and difference as socially constructed.

Further development could connect either approach with:

• socialisation, culture and identity

• social differentiation

• identity in relation to particular social characteristics.

The answer should analyse the relationships rather than simply quote Item B.

Question 7

Indicative content includes:

• Identity forms part of the first core theme, socialisation, culture and identity.

• Social differentiation, power and stratification form the second core theme.

• Identity must specifically be examined in relation to age, disability, ethnicity, gender, nationality, sexuality and social class.

• These requirements connect the study of individual and group identities with differences within contemporary society.

• AQA expects links between core themes and substantive Sociology.

Higher-level analysis should explain these connections rather than presenting the two core themes separately.

Question 8

Arguments against the view could include:

• AQA explicitly requires identity and difference to be examined as socially caused.

• They must also be examined as socially constructed.

• Identity belongs to the wider core theme of socialisation, culture and identity.

• Identity must be related to age, disability, ethnicity, gender, nationality, sexuality and social class.

• Identity must also be related to production, consumption and globalisation.

• These requirements consistently position identity within a wider social context.

A balanced response could recognise that the self remains an explicit concept within the specification and therefore individuals themselves form part of sociological study. However, the structure of the specification does not support treating identity purely as something detached from society.

A reasoned conclusion should therefore recognise that AQA requires students to examine identity through its relationship with social processes, social construction and wider forms of difference.

A detailed evaluation using named sociological theories cannot be completed from the supplied specification alone because those theories and evidence are not identified in the provided material.