Social learning theory and gender | AQA A-Level Psychology Revision

For 7182 specification, first teach in September 2025

AQA A-Level Psychology | Free Revision Notes

Estimated study time: 60 minutes

Social learning theory explains gender development through observation, imitation, identification and reinforcement. These Social learning theory and gender A-Level Psychology revision notes show how children learn gender-related behaviour from parents, peers, teachers and media figures. They also explain why observing behaviour does not automatically lead to imitation, as attention, retention, motor reproduction and motivation intervene between learning and performance.

The theory provides an environmental alternative to chromosomal and hormonal influences and complements the processing of gender-related information. AQA requires students to apply social learning theory to gender development.

Learning Objectives 🎯

By the end of this revision page, you should be able to:

• Explain observation, modelling and imitation in gender development.

• Apply direct, differential and vicarious reinforcement to gender-related behaviour.

• Explain identification and the characteristics that make a model influential.

• Explain attention, retention, motor reproduction and motivation.

• Distinguish the learning of behaviour from its later performance.

• Evaluate social learning theory using research evidence, alternative explanations and psychological debates.

.Revision Notes 📚

Social learning theory and gender overview

Social learning theory, often abbreviated to SLT, proposes that behaviour can be learned by observing other people.

The people whose behaviour is observed are called models.

Children may learn gender-related behaviour from:

• Parents and carers.

• Siblings.

• Peers.

• Teachers.

• Sportspeople.

• Actors and musicians.

• Online creators.

• Characters in films, television programmes, books and games.

The child observes how models behave and what happens to them afterwards.

Behaviour is more likely to be imitated when:

• The model possesses desirable characteristics.

• The child identifies with the model.

• The model is rewarded.

• The child expects a similar reward.

• The child attends to and remembers the behaviour.

• The child believes they can reproduce it.

The AQA specification also requires knowledge of social learning theory in the Approaches topic, including imitation, identification, vicarious reinforcement and mediational processes. These ideas should be applied specifically to gender development here.

The basic social learning process

The process can be summarised as:

model performs gender-related behaviour → child observes the behaviour → child observes its consequences → mediational processes occur → child may imitate the behaviour

For example:

1. A child watches an older sibling repairing a bicycle.

2. The sibling receives praise for being capable and independent.

3. The child attends to and remembers the behaviour.

4. The child believes they could attempt the same task.

5. The possibility of praise motivates the child.

6. The child later imitates the behaviour.

Social learning theory therefore explains both:

• How behaviour is acquired, through observation.

• Why it is performed, through reinforcement and cognitive processes.

Observation, modelling and imitation

Observation

Observation means watching or otherwise becoming aware of another person’s behaviour.

A child might observe:

• A parent preparing food.

• A teacher leading a class.

• A peer choosing a particular toy.

• A television character solving a problem.

• An online personality presenting gender-stereotypical behaviour.

Observation creates an opportunity for learning.

However, merely seeing a behaviour does not mean that the child will copy it.

Model

A model is a person whose behaviour is observed.

Models may be:

Live models

People physically present in the child’s environment, such as:

• Parents.

• Siblings.

• Friends.

• Teachers.

Symbolic models

People or characters presented through media, such as:

• Actors.

• Fictional characters.

• Sportspeople.

• Musicians.

• Social media creators.

A model does not have to be deliberately teaching the child.

Someone may unintentionally model gender-related behaviour through their ordinary choices, language or division of responsibilities.

Modelling

Modelling is the demonstration of behaviour that another person may observe and learn.

For example:

• A father who regularly prepares meals models cooking.

• A mother who manages household finances models financial responsibility.

• A male character who responds aggressively models aggression.

• A female scientist in a television programme models participation in science.

The behaviour modelled may support or challenge traditional gender roles.

Imitation

Imitation occurs when the observer reproduces the model’s behaviour.

Examples include:

• Copying a parent’s way of caring for a baby.

• Repeating a phrase used by a media character.

• Choosing the same activity as an admired peer.

• Adopting the clothing or mannerisms of a celebrity.

Observation concerns seeing behaviour.

Imitation concerns performing it.

📌 Exam tip: Do not use observation and imitation as though they mean the same thing. A child can observe and learn behaviour without immediately performing it.

Learning can occur without immediate imitation

A child may learn a behaviour but not perform it at once.

For example, the child may:

• Lack an opportunity to reproduce it.

• Expect punishment.

• Lack the necessary physical ability.

• Forget part of the behaviour.

• Decide that there is no worthwhile reward.

The behaviour may be demonstrated later when the situation or expected consequences change.

This distinction between learning and performance is central to social learning theory.

Identification

What is identification?

Identification occurs when an observer sees themselves as similar to a model or wants to be like that model.

The model may become psychologically significant to the observer.

A child might think:

• “They are like me.”

• “I admire them.”

• “I want to be like them.”

• “They are the sort of person I would like to become.”

Identification increases the likelihood that the child will:

• Pay attention to the model.

• Remember the model’s behaviour.

• Adopt the model’s attitudes.

• Imitate the model’s actions.

AQA describes identification as recognising oneself as similar to another person and wanting to be like them.

Characteristics of influential models

Identification is more likely when the model is perceived as:

• Similar to the child.

• Attractive or likeable.

• High status.

• Successful.

• Competent.

• Popular.

• Powerful.

• Rewarded for their behaviour.

Similarity can involve:

• Gender.

• Age.

• Interests.

• Background.

• Personality.

• Shared experiences.

Children may often identify with same-gender models because these models appear relevant to their own developing gender category.

However, identification is not restricted to same-gender models.

A child may identify with anyone they admire or perceive as similar.

Same-gender models

Social learning theory predicts that children may be especially likely to imitate behaviour performed by same-gender models.

A same-gender model may appear to show:

“How people like me behave.”

For example:

A girl who admires an older female footballer may identify with her and imitate her training behaviour.

The footballer may be influential because she is:

• Perceived as similar in gender.

• Successful.

• Skilled.

• Admired.

• Rewarded with attention and achievement.

The child is not imitating simply because the model is female. Several desirable model characteristics operate together.

Identification and internalisation

Internalisation occurs when the model’s behaviour, attitudes or values become incorporated into the child’s own beliefs or identity.

The child no longer performs the behaviour only to gain an immediate reward.

Instead, the behaviour becomes part of how the child sees themselves.

For example:

1. A child admires a parent who values independence.

2. The child observes the parent behaving independently.

3. The child imitates this behaviour.

4. Over time, the child comes to value independence personally.

5. Independence becomes part of the child’s self-concept.

AQA’s 2025 mark scheme links identification with the adoption and internalisation of a model’s attitudes and behaviour.

Identification and imitation compared

Identification	Imitation
A psychological connection with a model	Reproduction of a model’s behaviour
Involves similarity or wanting to be like the model	Involves performing an observed action
May produce a lasting influence on attitudes and identity	May be temporary or situation specific
Can increase attention and motivation	Is the observable outcome
Does not automatically produce immediate copying	Can occur with or without deep identification

A child might imitate a stranger’s behaviour once without identifying with them.

Alternatively, a child may strongly identify with a celebrity but be unable to imitate a particular behaviour.

Reinforcement

What is reinforcement?

Reinforcement is a consequence that increases the likelihood that behaviour will be repeated.

In gender development, reinforcement may encourage children to behave in ways that others consider appropriate for their gender.

Reinforcement can be:

• Direct.

• Differential.

• Vicarious.

Direct reinforcement

Direct reinforcement occurs when the child personally experiences a consequence after performing a behaviour.

For example:

A boy is praised for playing confidently in a football match.

The praise may increase the likelihood that he will repeat the behaviour.

Other possible direct rewards include:

• Attention.

• Approval.

• Smiles.

• Praise.

• Money.

• Access to an activity.

• Acceptance by peers.

Direct punishment

Punishment is a consequence that reduces the likelihood of behaviour being repeated.

For example:

A boy is mocked by peers for playing with a doll.

The child may become less likely to repeat the behaviour in front of those peers.

Punishment could include:

• Criticism.

• Teasing.

• Disapproval.

• Rejection.

• Removal of a privilege.

The behaviour itself may still have been learned. The child may simply avoid performing it in situations where punishment is expected.

Differential reinforcement

Differential reinforcement occurs when different behaviours are rewarded or punished depending on the child’s perceived gender.

The same behaviour may produce different consequences for different children.

For example:

• Assertiveness may be praised in a boy but criticised in a girl.

• Nurturing play may be praised in a girl but mocked in a boy.

• Aggression may be tolerated more in boys than in girls.

• Emotional expression may receive different responses according to gender expectations.

Through differential reinforcement, children learn which behaviours their social group considers appropriate for them.

Gender typing through direct consequences

A possible process is:

1. A child performs several different behaviours.

2. Adults or peers reward some behaviours.

3. Other behaviours receive punishment or no reward.

4. Rewarded behaviours become more frequent.

5. The child develops a pattern of gender-typed behaviour.

For example:

A girl receives warmth and attention when caring for a toy baby but little response when playing with a construction set.

Over time, the nurturing behaviour may become more frequent.

This does not mean that the child possesses an innate preference for nurturing play. SLT explains the preference through the consequences provided by the environment.

Vicarious reinforcement

What is vicarious reinforcement?

Vicarious reinforcement occurs when an observer sees another person rewarded for a behaviour.

The observer learns that performing a similar behaviour may produce a desirable consequence.

For example:

A child watches an older brother receive praise for being competitive and successful in sport.

The child may become more likely to imitate the brother’s competitive behaviour.

The observer does not receive the original reward. The reward is experienced by the model.

Vicarious punishment

Vicarious punishment occurs when the observer sees a model punished.

This may reduce the observer’s motivation to imitate the model.

For example:

A child sees a classmate teased for choosing a toy associated with another gender.

The child may avoid that toy to prevent similar treatment.

Direct and vicarious reinforcement compared

Direct reinforcement	Vicarious reinforcement
The child performs the behaviour	The child observes another person
The child personally receives the reward	The model receives the reward
The reward follows the child’s own action	The observed consequence affects expected outcomes
Example: a child is praised for caring play	Example: a child sees a sibling praised for caring play

Why vicarious reinforcement matters

Children cannot personally try every possible behaviour.

By observing others, they can learn:

• Which behaviours are rewarded.

• Which behaviours are punished.

• Which behaviours bring popularity or status.

• Which roles appear desirable.

• Which activities are presented as suitable for particular genders.

Vicarious reinforcement makes learning more efficient because the child can use another person’s experience.

Reward is interpreted by the observer

The same consequence may not motivate every child.

For example, public attention might be:

• Rewarding to one child.

• Embarrassing to another.

The effect of vicarious reinforcement therefore depends on how the observer interprets the consequence.

This is one reason social learning theory includes cognitive processes.

Mediational processes

What are mediational processes?

Mediational processes are cognitive processes that occur between observing behaviour and performing it.

They explain why people do not automatically imitate everything they see.

The four central mediational processes are:

1. Attention

2. Retention

3. Motor reproduction

4. Motivation

AQA mark schemes also describe motor reproduction as the capacity or perceived ability to reproduce the behaviour.

Overview of the four processes

Mediational process	Central question
Attention	Did the child notice the behaviour?
Retention	Can the child remember it?
Motor reproduction	Can the child perform it?
Motivation	Does the child want to perform it?

Attention

Attention involves noticing and focusing on the model’s behaviour.

Attention is more likely when the model is:

• Attractive.

• High status.

• Similar to the child.

• Successful.

• Unusual or interesting.

• Personally relevant.

For example:

A child may pay close attention to an admired same-gender athlete because the athlete is successful and represents a desirable identity.

A behaviour cannot be learned effectively when the observer does not attend to it.

Retention

Retention means storing the observed behaviour in memory.

The observer must remember:

• What the model did.

• The sequence of actions.

• The situation in which it occurred.

• The consequences the model received.

Retention allows behaviour to be reproduced later, even when the model is no longer present.

For example:

A child watches a parent confidently challenge an unfair rule and remembers the words and tone used.

The child may reproduce the behaviour in a different situation several weeks later.

Motor reproduction

Motor reproduction means possessing the physical or behavioural ability to perform what was observed.

The child may attend to and remember a behaviour but be unable to reproduce it.

For example:

• A young child may watch a professional gymnast but lack the physical ability to copy the movement.

• A child may observe a confident speech but lack the language skills needed to reproduce it.

• A child may understand a complex caring task but lack the opportunity to perform it.

Motor reproduction includes the observer’s perception of their own ability, sometimes described as self-efficacy.

A child who believes they cannot succeed may not attempt the behaviour.

Motivation

Motivation means having a reason to perform the behaviour.

Motivation may depend on:

• Expected praise.

• Expected popularity.

• Avoidance of punishment.

• Identification with the model.

• Personal interest.

• Whether the model was rewarded.

• Whether the behaviour fits the child’s gender schema.

A child may learn a behaviour but decide not to perform it because:

• The expected reward is too small.

• Punishment seems likely.

• The model was criticised.

• The child does not value the outcome.

A complete mediational example

Kai observes an admired male teacher calmly comforting an upset student. Other pupils praise the teacher for being kind.

The process might be:

• Attention: Kai notices the teacher because he admires him.

• Retention: Kai remembers the teacher’s calm words and actions.

• Motor reproduction: Kai possesses the communication skills needed to behave similarly.

• Motivation: The praise received by the teacher makes kindness appear rewarding.

• Imitation: Kai later comforts a friend using similar behaviour.

This example shows that social learning can encourage behaviour that challenges traditional stereotypes.

The complete social learning process

A fuller model of gender development is:

1. A child encounters a model.

2. The model performs gender-related behaviour.

3. The child pays attention.

4. The behaviour is retained in memory.

5. The child observes rewards or punishments.

6. The child evaluates whether they can reproduce the behaviour.

7. Identification may increase the model’s influence.

8. Expected consequences affect motivation.

9. The child may imitate the behaviour.

10. Direct reinforcement may strengthen or weaken future performance.

11. Repeated experience may lead to internalisation.

This process is more complex than:

child sees behaviour → child copies behaviour

Social learning theory includes cognition, expected consequences and individual interpretation.

Sources of gender learning

Parents and carers

Parents and carers may influence gender development through:

• Behaviour they model.

• Activities they encourage.

• Toys they provide.

• Language they use.

• Responsibilities they allocate.

• Rewards and punishments.

• Their responses to gender-consistent and inconsistent behaviour.

A parent may model traditional roles through the division of household work.

Alternatively, parents may model less stereotypical roles, such as:

• Fathers providing childcare.

• Mothers repairing household equipment.

• All adults sharing cooking and cleaning.

• Adults entering occupations traditionally associated with another gender.

Modelling and reinforcement can send different messages

A parent might verbally encourage equality but still model a traditional division of labour.

For example:

• The parent says all careers are open to everyone.

• The child repeatedly sees only women doing housework.

• The child repeatedly sees only men making financial decisions.

Social learning theory predicts that observed behaviour can be influential even when it conflicts with explicit instructions.

Peers

Peers can provide powerful reinforcement.

Children may receive:

• Approval for gender-consistent behaviour.

• Popularity for following group expectations.

• Teasing for gender-inconsistent choices.

• Exclusion for failing to follow group norms.

Peer reactions can become especially influential when belonging to the group is highly valued.

AQA mark schemes identify children’s disapproval of gender-inconsistent play as evidence relevant to social learning.

Teachers and schools

Teachers may influence gender development through:

• The behaviour they model.

• Praise and discipline.

• Expectations about ability.

• The tasks allocated to pupils.

• Which children are encouraged to speak.

• The language used to describe behaviour.

For example, similar assertive behaviour might be interpreted differently in boys and girls.

School materials can also provide models through:

• Textbooks.

• Displays.

• Stories.

• Career examples.

• Visiting speakers.

Media

Media provide a large number of symbolic models.

Children may observe gender-related behaviour in:

• Television programmes.

• Advertising.

• Films.

• Music videos.

• Books.

• Computer games.

• Social media.

Models may be especially influential when they are:

• Attractive.

• Popular.

• High status.

• Similar to the observer.

• Rewarded within the story.

The role of these models is examined fully in cultural and media influences on gender roles.

Applying modelling and reinforcement

Consider this scenario:

Nia admires her older cousin, who is a successful engineer. Nia watches her repair electronic equipment and hears relatives praising her skill and independence. Nia later begins repairing old devices herself. Her teacher praises her work, and Nia decides that engineering is an important part of her future.

Modelling

• The cousin demonstrates technical and independent behaviour.

• She acts as a model for Nia.

Identification

• Nia admires her cousin.

• The cousin is similar to Nia and possesses desirable characteristics.

• This increases identification.

Vicarious reinforcement

• Nia observes relatives praising the cousin.

• She learns that technical competence can produce approval.

Imitation

• Nia begins repairing devices herself.

• She reproduces the observed behaviour.

Direct reinforcement

• Nia’s teacher praises her work.

• This increases the likelihood that she will continue.

Internalisation

• Engineering becomes part of Nia’s future self-concept.

• The attitude is no longer based only on gaining immediate praise.

Mediational processes

• Nia attends to her admired cousin.

• She remembers the repair behaviour.

• She develops the skills needed to reproduce it.

• Praise and future aspirations motivate her.

A second application example

Arun watches an older group of boys mock another boy for choosing dance rather than football. Arun enjoys dance but decides not to join the dance club.

The behaviour can be explained through:

• The older boys act as models.

• Arun observes the other child being punished through ridicule.

• This is vicarious punishment.

• Arun retains the possible consequence of gender-inconsistent behaviour.

• Avoiding ridicule motivates him not to join.

• His decision concerns performance, not necessarily preference or learning.

Arun may still enjoy dance but avoid displaying the behaviour publicly.

A strategy for application questions

Use the following steps.

Step 1: Identify the model

Who is being observed?

Step 2: Identify the behaviour

What gender-related behaviour or attitude is demonstrated?

Step 3: Identify model characteristics

Why might the model be influential?

Look for:

• Similarity.

• Admiration.

• Status.

• Success.

• Attractiveness.

Step 4: Identify consequences

Who is rewarded or punished?

• Child receives consequence: direct reinforcement or punishment.

• Model receives consequence: vicarious reinforcement or punishment.

Step 5: Identify the mediational process

Does the scenario mention:

• Noticing: attention.

• Remembering: retention.

• Ability: motor reproduction.

• Expected outcome: motivation.

Step 6: Identify the outcome

Does the child:

• Imitate?

• Avoid the behaviour?

• Internalise an attitude?

• Delay performance?

Use:

scenario detail → social learning concept → psychological process → effect on behaviour

Research evidence

Perry and Bussey

Perry and Bussey found that children were more likely to imitate behaviour performed by same-gender models.

This supports social learning theory because similarity between observer and model appears to influence imitation.

The findings are consistent with identification:

• Same-gender models may appear more relevant.

• Their behaviour may be interpreted as appropriate for the observer.

• Children may be motivated to adopt similar behaviour.

AQA identifies Perry and Bussey as evidence that children prefer to imitate same-sex behaviour.

Research into parental reinforcement

Research identified in AQA materials suggests that parents may reinforce gender-typed behaviour differently.

For example:

• Fathers may reinforce sex-typed behaviour more strongly than mothers.

• Girls may receive greater criticism for aggression than boys.

• Parental responses can be linked with children’s gender-role behaviour.

This supports differential reinforcement because the consequences of behaviour may depend on the child’s gender.

However, parental behaviour is difficult to separate from the child’s pre-existing behaviour.

A highly active child may produce different parental responses from a quieter child.

Smith and Lloyd

Smith and Lloyd investigated how adults responded to babies who were presented with different gender labels.

Adults’ behaviour towards the babies was influenced by the gender they believed the baby to be.

This supports a social learning account because adults may create different learning environments through:

• The toys they offer.

• The activities they encourage.

• The way they handle the child.

• Their expectations about behaviour.

The finding suggests that gender labels can affect the reinforcement and modelling children experience.

Bussey and Bandura

Bussey and Bandura found that young children may disapprove of gender-inconsistent play.

This supports the influence of peers and social consequences.

Children learn not only from adults but also from:

• Approval.

• Rejection.

• Teasing.

• Judgements made by other children.

The peer group can therefore maintain gender-role expectations through direct and vicarious consequences.

Media research

Research into media representations has identified repeated gender stereotypes in some:

• Advertising.

• Television programmes.

• Social media content.

• Music videos.

These representations provide models whom children may observe and imitate.

AQA mark schemes recognise media figures as sources of modelling, identification and vicarious reinforcement.

However, showing that stereotypes appear in media does not automatically prove that viewers imitate them.

The observer must still:

• Attend.

• Retain.

• Possess the ability to reproduce.

• Be motivated.

Social learning theory and cognitive explanations

Comparison with gender schema theory

Social learning theory and Martin and Halverson’s cognitive explanation both recognise that children do not copy every behaviour they encounter.

Social learning theory	Gender schema theory
Focuses on models and consequences	Focuses on organised mental frameworks
Behaviour is learned through observation and reinforcement	Information is selected according to existing schemas
Identification affects which models are influential	In-group membership affects which information is processed
Mediational processes occur before imitation	Schemas influence attention and memory
Explains where some gender-role information comes from	Explains how gender information is organised
Social environment provides behaviour to learn	Child actively selects schema-consistent information

The theories can work together.

For example:

1. A gender schema directs a child’s attention towards a same-gender model.

2. The child observes the model.

3. Vicarious reinforcement creates motivation.

4. The child imitates the behaviour.

5. The experience strengthens the schema.

Comparison with Kohlberg

Kohlberg’s theory proposes that gender understanding develops through:

• Gender identity.

• Gender stability.

• Gender constancy.

SLT does not require a child to reach a particular cognitive stage before learning behaviour.

A child may observe, remember and imitate behaviour at an early age.

Social learning theory	Kohlberg’s theory
Gender behaviour develops through social experience	Gender behaviour follows developing cognitive understanding
Modelling and reinforcement are central	Gender identity, stability and constancy are central
Does not propose a fixed sequence of stages	Proposes three ordered stages
Behaviour may be learned before advanced understanding	Full motivation is associated with gender constancy
Explains cultural content of gender roles	Explains changes in understanding with age

Kohlberg may explain why children’s understanding changes with development, while SLT explains how particular gender roles are transmitted.

Evaluating social learning theory

Strength: research supports imitation and reinforcement

Evidence indicates that children may:

• Imitate same-gender models.

• Respond to parental reinforcement.

• Avoid behaviour criticised by peers.

• Learn from media role models.

This supports the central claim that social consequences and observed behaviour influence gender development.

The evidence is especially persuasive when research shows differences following:

• Different models.

• Different labels.

• Different consequences.

• Different media exposure.

AQA’s 2021 mark scheme explicitly recognises evidence concerning same-gender imitation, parental reinforcement, peer disapproval and media models.

Strength: it explains cultural differences

Gender roles differ across cultures.

Different societies provide children with different:

• Models.

• Rewards.

• Punishments.

• Expectations.

• Media representations.

Social learning theory can explain cultural variation because children learn behaviour that is valued within their own social environment.

For example, if a society encourages both men and women to perform similar occupational and family roles, children will observe and learn a less sharply divided pattern.

This variation is harder to explain through an account claiming that gender roles are entirely biologically fixed.

Strength: it explains changes over time

Gender roles can change across historical periods.

Social learning theory explains this because:

1. New behaviours are modelled.

2. People observe minority or counter-stereotypical examples.

3. These models receive approval or success.

4. Others imitate them.

5. Previously unusual behaviour becomes increasingly common.

6. Social expectations change.

AQA accepts the ability to explain changing gender roles as a strength of SLT.

Strength: it includes cognitive processes

SLT is more sophisticated than a simple stimulus-response explanation.

Mediational processes recognise that the child:

• Selects what to attend to.

• Stores information.

• Judges their own ability.

• Predicts possible consequences.

• Decides whether to perform the behaviour.

This gives the child an active cognitive role.

It explains why two children may observe the same model but behave differently.

Strength: practical applications

If gender roles are learned, they can potentially be changed by altering the learning environment.

Possible applications include:

• Providing diverse models.

• Rewarding a broad range of behaviour.

• Avoiding punishment for gender-inconsistent interests.

• Showing counter-stereotypical media characters.

• Sharing domestic and caring roles.

• Encouraging all children to explore the same subjects and activities.

This is socially useful because it suggests restrictive stereotypes are modifiable rather than inevitable.

Limitation: it does not explain development through age-related stages

Social learning theory explains how behaviour is acquired but says less about how gender understanding changes as children grow older.

It does not clearly explain why children develop:

• Gender identity.

• Stability.

• Constancy.

• Increasingly complex gender schemas.

AQA mark schemes identify this as a limitation: SLT can make gender development appear to happen all at once rather than through a developmental process.

Kohlberg and gender schema theory provide more detailed accounts of cognitive development.

Limitation: biological influences are underestimated

Social learning theory emphasises nurture.

However, chromosomes and hormonal influences may contribute to:

• Biological sexual development.

• Activity levels.

• Aggression.

• Nurturing.

• Other behavioural predispositions.

Evidence involving hormones and diversity in sex development suggests that biology cannot be ignored.

SLT may therefore provide a partial account of gender development rather than a complete one.

Limitation: social learning evidence may not establish causality

Research may find that:

• Parents reinforce gender-typed behaviour.

• Children display gender-typed preferences.

This does not establish whether:

• Parental behaviour caused the child’s preferences.

• The child’s preferences caused different parental responses.

• Both influenced each other.

For example, a child who repeatedly chooses a particular toy may lead parents to provide more of that type of toy.

The relationship between child and environment may be bidirectional.

Limitation: laboratory research may lack ecological validity

Some social learning research places children in controlled situations where they observe a model and are then given an opportunity to imitate.

This allows researchers to:

• Control the model’s behaviour.

• Control rewards and punishments.

• Compare imitation between groups.

However, everyday gender development occurs over many years through interactions with numerous models.

A short laboratory task may not represent:

• Long-term identification.

• Family relationships.

• Peer pressure.

• Cultural learning.

• Stable gender identity.

Limitation: demand characteristics

Children in a study may realise that they are expected to imitate the model.

They might reproduce the behaviour because:

• The equipment has been deliberately provided.

• The researcher appears to expect imitation.

• The model’s behaviour has been made highly noticeable.

The results may therefore overestimate spontaneous imitation in ordinary life.

Limitation: imitation does not prove identification

A child copying a model does not necessarily show that the child:

• Identified with the model.

• Internalised the behaviour.

• Will continue performing it.

• Considers it part of their gender identity.

Imitation might be:

• Temporary.

• Playful.

• Produced by the research situation.

• Motivated by an immediate reward.

Researchers need more than a single copied behaviour to demonstrate lasting gender development.

Limitation: the origin of gender roles remains unclear

SLT explains how gender roles are transmitted from one person to another.

It is less clear about where the first gender roles originated.

For example, if a child copies a parent’s stereotypical behaviour, SLT can explain the transmission.

It does not necessarily explain why the parent or culture developed that division of behaviour in the first place.

Biological, historical, economic and cultural explanations may be needed to account for the original pattern.

Limitation: environmental determinism

SLT can be environmentally deterministic if it suggests that behaviour is controlled by:

• Models.

• Rewards.

• Punishments.

• Social expectations.

This may underestimate:

• Personal choice.

• Individual interpretation.

• Resistance to social pressure.

• Creativity.

• Children’s ability to challenge stereotypes.

However, mediational processes make SLT less deterministic than strict behaviourism.

Children evaluate observed behaviour rather than imitating automatically.

Limitation: environmental reductionism

Social learning theory may reduce complex gender development to:

• Observation.

• Reinforcement.

• Imitation.

This can overlook:

• Biological development.

• Gender identity.

• Cognitive stages.

• Schemas.

• Cultural history.

• Personal meaning.

Its advantage is that these processes are relatively clear and testable.

Its disadvantage is that gender development involves more than observable models and consequences.

Limitation: individual differences

Children exposed to similar models and consequences do not always develop identical behaviour.

One child may imitate a model while another rejects the behaviour.

Differences may result from:

• Existing schemas.

• Personality.

• Biological predispositions.

• Previous experience.

• Self-efficacy.

• Identification.

• The value placed on the reward.

The theory includes some of these differences through mediational processes, but predicting

exactly who will imitate remains difficult.

Limitation: traditional applications may assume binary roles

Traditional SLT accounts often discuss boys learning masculine behaviour and girls learning feminine behaviour.

The revised specification also recognises binary, non-binary and gender-fluid identities.

A narrow account may not explain fully how individuals:

• Identify outside binary categories.

• Combine behaviours associated with several gender roles.

• Reject the models and rewards available in their environment.

• Develop identities that change over time.

SLT can be broadened to include diverse models and identities, but traditional research has often focused on binary gender stereotypes.

An interactionist explanation

Social learning and biological factors do not have to be treated as mutually exclusive.

An interactionist explanation proposes that biological and environmental influences work together.

For example:

1. A child may show an early preference or behavioural tendency.

2. Adults notice the behaviour.

3. They respond with praise, opportunities or expectations.

4. The child observes similar models.

5. Reinforcement strengthens the behaviour.

6. Gender schemas organise the experience.

7. The pattern becomes part of the child’s identity or role.

This explanation combines:

• Biology.

• Modelling.

• Reinforcement.

• Cognition.

• Culture.

It is more complete than claiming that gender is caused entirely by either nature or nurture.

Overall conclusion

Social learning theory proposes that gender-related behaviour is acquired through:

• Observation.

• Modelling.

• Imitation.

• Identification.

• Direct reinforcement.

• Differential reinforcement.

• Vicarious reinforcement.

• Mediational processes.

Children are more likely to imitate models who are similar, admired, attractive, successful or high status. They also consider whether behaviour is rewarded, whether they can perform it and whether the expected outcome is worthwhile.

The theory is supported by research into same-gender imitation, parental reinforcement, peer reactions and media models. It also explains cultural and historical changes in gender roles.

However, SLT may:

• Underestimate biological influences.

• Explain learning more successfully than age-related development.

• Rely on artificial studies.

• Struggle to establish cause and effect.

• Oversimplify gender through models and reinforcement.

• Retain a narrower binary focus than contemporary understandings of gender.

The most convincing conclusion is that social learning makes a substantial contribution to gender development, but it operates alongside biological influences, cognitive development, schemas and wider culture.

Hints from the Examiner Reports 💡

Examiner hint: Keep the answer focused on social learning. The 2025 examiner report noted that students sometimes moved unclearly between social learning and cognitive explanations. Stronger responses made the approach being used explicit and linked each concept directly to the scenario.

Examiner hint: Do not treat identification and imitation as synonyms. Identification is wanting to be like a model. Imitation is reproducing the model’s behaviour.

Examiner hint: When applying identification, explain why the model is desirable. Useful scenario details include similarity, admiration, status, popularity, competence and success.

Examiner hint: The 2024 identification question caused difficulty for many students. Better answers explained the social learning account precisely and distinguished it from other approaches.

Examiner hint: State who receives the consequence:

• Child receives praise: direct reinforcement.

• Model receives praise: vicarious reinforcement.

Examiner hint: Name and explain all four mediational processes:

attention → retention → motor reproduction → motivation

Examiner hint: Observation does not guarantee imitation. Use mediational processes to explain why two children may respond differently to the same model.

Examiner hint: Evidence must be linked to the theory. Do not simply write that a study involved children and toys. Explain whether it supports modelling, identification, direct reinforcement or vicarious reinforcement.

Examiner hint: Avoid anecdotal discussion of media. The 2023 examiner report noted that stronger answers used social learning concepts and evidence linked to gendered role models rather than relying on common-sense claims.

Examiner hint: In the 2021 16-mark question, 666 marks assessed knowledge and 101010 assessed discussion. A descriptive account of observation and imitation without substantial evaluation could not reach the highest level.

Common Mistakes ⚠️

Mistake: Saying observation and imitation are the same process

Why this is incorrect:

Observation means seeing behaviour. Imitation means reproducing it.

How to improve:

Explain what occurs between them, including mediational processes and expected consequences.

Mistake: Calling every model a role model

Why this is incorrect:

A model is anyone whose behaviour is observed. A role model is usually someone with whom the observer identifies.

How to improve:

Look for admiration, similarity or a desire to be like the model.

Mistake: Saying identification means copying

Why this is incorrect:

Identification is a psychological connection. Copying is imitation.

How to improve:

Explain how identification increases the likelihood of attention and imitation.

Mistake: Assuming children only identify with same-gender models

Why this is incorrect:

Same-gender similarity may increase identification, but status, attractiveness and shared interests can also matter.

How to improve:

Use cautious language such as “more likely” rather than “must”.

Mistake: Confusing direct and vicarious reinforcement

Why this is incorrect:

Direct reinforcement is experienced by the child. Vicarious reinforcement is observed happening to a model.

How to improve:

State clearly who receives the reward.

Mistake: Calling criticism a reinforcement

Why this is incorrect:

Criticism is more likely to function as punishment if it reduces the behaviour.

How to improve:

Describe the consequence and its effect on future behaviour.

Mistake: Saying punishment prevents learning

Why this is incorrect:

The child may still learn and remember the behaviour but avoid performing it.

How to improve:

Distinguish acquisition from performance.

Mistake: Forgetting differential reinforcement

Why this is incorrect:

Gender development often involves similar behaviour receiving different responses depending on who performs it.

How to improve:

Include an example comparing consequences for different genders.

Mistake: Listing mediational processes without explaining them

Why this is incomplete:

Naming attention, retention, reproduction and motivation does not show how they influence imitation.

How to improve:

Apply each process to a specific modelled behaviour.

Mistake: Confusing retention with reproduction

Why this is incorrect:

Retention concerns memory. Reproduction concerns the ability to perform.

How to improve:

Use:

• Retention: “Can I remember it?”

• Reproduction: “Can I do it?”

Mistake: Saying media automatically cause gender stereotypes

Why this is incorrect:

The observer must attend, remember, be capable and be motivated.

How to improve:

Explain the full social learning process.

Mistake: Describing gender schema theory in an SLT question

Why this is incorrect:

Schemas concern organised cognitive knowledge. SLT concerns models, consequences and mediational processes.

How to improve:

Use observation, identification, reinforcement and imitation as the core terminology.

Mistake: Naming a study without explaining its relevance

Why this is incorrect:

The examiner needs to know how the result supports or challenges SLT.

How to improve:

Use:

finding → SLT process → consequence for the explanation

Mistake: Using a generic evaluation point

Why this is incorrect:

Writing “the research lacks validity” does not explain what is invalid or why.

How to improve:

Explain how an artificial imitation task may overestimate copying during ordinary gender development.

Exam-Style Questions ✍️

Questions

1. What is meant by modelling in social learning theory?[2 marks]

2. Explain one difference between identification and imitation.[3 marks]

3. Explain one difference between direct reinforcement and vicarious reinforcement.[4 marks]

4. Name and briefly explain the four mediational processes involved in social learning.[4 marks]

5. Rosa admires an older cousin who is a successful mechanic. Rosa watches her cousin repair a car and sees relatives praise her. Rosa later repairs a bicycle and receives praise from a teacher.

Explain Rosa’s behaviour using social learning theory.[6 marks]

6. A teacher praises boys and girls equally for showing empathy. The teacher also displays posters showing men and women in caring occupations.

Explain two ways in which these practices could influence gender development.[4 marks]

7. Noah sees another boy mocked by classmates for choosing ballet. Although Noah enjoys dancing, he decides not to attend ballet lessons.

Explain Noah’s behaviour using vicarious punishment and motivation.[4 marks]

8. A psychologist records whether children imitate an activity demonstrated by a male or female model.

Model	Percentage of boys imitating	Percentage of girls imitating
Male model	72	39
Female model	41	68

Explain one conclusion that could be drawn from these results and one limitation of the conclusion.[4 marks]

9. Compare social learning theory with gender schema theory as explanations of gender development.[6 marks]

10. Outline one strength and one limitation of social learning theory as an explanation of gender development.[6 marks]

11. Discuss social learning theory as applied to gender development.[16 marks]

Answers and Mark Scheme

Question 1

Award up to two marks:

• Modelling involves a person demonstrating behaviour that another person can observe.

• The observed behaviour may then be learned or imitated by the observer.

Question 2

Award up to three marks:

• Identification involves seeing oneself as similar to a model or wanting to be like them.

• Imitation involves reproducing the model’s behaviour.

• Identification may increase the likelihood of imitation, but the processes are not identical.

Question 3

Award up to four marks:

• Direct reinforcement occurs when the child performs a behaviour and personally receives a rewarding consequence.

• For example, a child is praised for participating in a particular activity.

• Vicarious reinforcement occurs when the child observes a model being rewarded.

• The observer becomes more likely to imitate because they expect a similar outcome.

Question 4

Award one mark for each accurately explained process:

• Attention: noticing and focusing on the model’s behaviour.

• Retention: remembering the behaviour.

• Motor reproduction: possessing or believing one possesses the ability to perform it.

• Motivation: having a reason, such as an expected reward, to perform it.

Question 5

Award up to six marks:

• Rosa’s cousin acts as a model by demonstrating mechanical behaviour.

• Rosa admires the cousin, so identification is likely.

• The cousin is successful and possesses desirable characteristics.

• Rosa observes the cousin receiving praise, which is vicarious reinforcement.

• Rosa retains and reproduces the repair behaviour by fixing the bicycle.

• The teacher’s praise is direct reinforcement.

• The praise may increase the likelihood that Rosa will continue technical activities.

• Repeated experience may lead to internalisation of the attitude that mechanical work is appropriate for her.

Question 6

Award up to two marks for each developed explanation.

Possible content:

• Equal praise provides direct reinforcement for empathy regardless of gender, so all pupils may become more likely to repeat caring behaviour.

• The posters provide male and female models in caring roles.

• Pupils may identify with similar or admired models.

• The models challenge traditional stereotypes and may widen the behaviours pupils see as appropriate.

• If the models are shown as successful, pupils may experience vicarious reinforcement.

Question 7

Award up to four marks:

• Noah observes another boy receiving ridicule for ballet.

• The ridicule functions as vicarious punishment.

• Noah learns that choosing ballet may produce rejection or criticism.

• He is therefore not motivated to perform the behaviour publicly.

• Noah may still have learned or enjoy dancing, showing the distinction between learning and performance.

Question 8

Award up to four marks:

• Boys were more likely to imitate the male model than the female model.

• Girls were more likely to imitate the female model than the male model.

• This is consistent with the idea that similarity or same-gender identification increases imitation.

• The results do not prove that identification caused the behaviour.

• Children may have responded to demand characteristics or previous reinforcement.

• No inferential-test result is provided, so the differences cannot be described as statistically significant.

Question 9

Award up to six marks for direct comparison.

Possible content:

• Both explanations view children as active processors rather than completely passive learners.

• SLT focuses on observation, models, reinforcement and imitation.

• Gender schema theory focuses on organised mental frameworks.

• SLT explains how behaviour and stereotypes are transmitted socially.

• Gender schema theory explains how information is selected, stored and reconstructed.

• Identification directs attention towards influential models in SLT.

• In-group schemas direct attention towards gender-relevant information in gender schema theory.

• Both include cognitive processes, but schemas are central only to gender schema theory.

• The theories can interact, as a schema may direct attention to a model whose rewarded behaviour is then imitated.

Higher marks require linked comparisons rather than two separate descriptions.

Question 10

Award up to three marks for a developed strength and three marks for a developed limitation.

Possible strength:

Research shows that children may imitate same-gender models and respond to parental or peer consequences. This supports the claim that modelling, identification and reinforcement contribute to gender-related behaviour.

Possible limitation:

SLT does not provide a detailed account of age-related changes in gender understanding. Cognitive theories such as Kohlberg’s explain the development of identity, stability and constancy more effectively.

Alternative creditworthy points include:

• Ability to explain cultural or historical variation.

• Inclusion of mediational processes.

• Practical applications.

• Limited ecological validity.

• Demand characteristics.

• Failure to establish causality.

• Underestimation of biological factors.

• Environmental determinism or reductionism.

• Binary assumptions.

Question 11

A strong answer should include:

Knowledge and understanding

• Social learning as learning through observation.

• Models and modelling.

• Imitation.

• Identification.

• Characteristics of influential models.

• Internalisation.

• Direct reinforcement.

• Differential reinforcement.

• Vicarious reinforcement.

• Vicarious punishment.

• Attention.

• Retention.

• Motor reproduction.

• Motivation.

• The learning-performance distinction.

• Parents, peers, teachers and media as models.

Evaluation

• Evidence of same-gender imitation.

• Evidence concerning parental reinforcement.

• Peer disapproval of gender-inconsistent behaviour.

• Media models and vicarious reinforcement.

• Ability to explain cultural differences.

• Ability to explain changes in gender roles over time.

• Inclusion of cognitive mediational processes.

• Practical applications involving diverse models.

• Limited explanation of age-related development.

• Biological influences as an alternative.

• Bidirectional parent-child effects.

• Artificial imitation studies and demand characteristics.

• Difficulty inferring identification from imitation.

• Environmental determinism and reductionism.

• Individual differences in response to models.

• Traditional binary assumptions.

• The value of an interactionist explanation.

Higher-level answers will distinguish modelling, identification and imitation accurately, explain all four mediational processes and use evidence to evaluate the theory rather than merely listing studies.