Biological explanations of gender development | AQA A-Level Psychology Revision

For 7182 specification, first teach in September 2025

AQA A-Level Psychology | Free Revision Notes

Estimated study time: 60 minutes

Biological explanations propose that gender development is influenced by inherited chromosomes and the hormones produced during development. These Biological explanations of gender development A-Level Psychology revision notes explain how XXXXXX and XYXYXY chromosome patterns, the SRY gene, testosterone, oestrogen and oxytocin may contribute to gender-related characteristics and behaviour.

The explanation builds on chromosomal influences on biological sex, the roles of testosterone, oestrogen and oxytocin and variations in chromosomes and hormone sensitivity. AQA requires students to explain and evaluate biological explanations involving both chromosomes and hormones.

Learning Objectives 🎯

By the end of this revision page, you should be able to:

• Define biological explanations of gender development.

• Explain how sex chromosomes may influence gender-related development.

• Explain the role of the SRY gene in the biological pathway.

• Explain how testosterone, oestrogen and oxytocin may influence gender-related behaviour.

• Apply chromosome-based and hormonal explanations to unfamiliar scenarios.

• Evaluate biological explanations using evidence, alternative explanations and psychological issues and debates.

Revision Notes 📚

Biological explanations of gender development overview

Biological explanations propose that gender development is influenced by biological processes that begin before birth and continue throughout development.

The two main influences named in the specification are:

1. Chromosomes

2. Hormones

These biological factors may contribute to:

• The development of biological sexual characteristics.

• Differences in brain development.

• Behaviour traditionally associated with masculinity or femininity.

• Aggression.

• Nurturing behaviour.

• Responses to stress.

• Trust and social bonding.

Biological explanations generally assume that differences between typical male and female development begin with inherited genetic information.

However, biological sex and gender are not identical.

• Biological sex concerns chromosomes, hormones, gonads and anatomy.

• Gender development concerns identity, roles and behaviour associated with gender.

A biological explanation proposes that biological sex influences gender development. It should not assume that chromosomes completely determine a person’s identity or behaviour.

The biological pathway

The biological explanation can be represented as a sequence:

sex chromosomes → genes → gonadal development → hormone production → effects on the body and brain → possible gender-related behaviour

Each stage contributes to the next.

For example:

XYXYXY → SRY gene → testes → testosterone → typically male sexual development and possible influence on male-typed behaviour

A strong answer explains this pathway rather than listing chromosomes and hormones separately.

Chromosome-based explanations

Sex chromosomes

Humans normally have 46 chromosomes arranged into 23 pairs.

The 23rd pair contains the sex chromosomes.

The typical patterns are:

Chromosome pattern	Typical biological development
XXXXXX	Female
XYXYXY	Male

The biological explanation proposes that these chromosome patterns influence gender development indirectly through:

• Gonadal development.

• Hormone production.

• Brain development.

• Physical characteristics.

• How the individual is treated by others.

The YYY chromosome and SRY gene

The YYY chromosome normally contains the sex-determining region YYY gene, known as the SRY gene.

The SRY gene initiates the development of testes.

The testes then produce androgens, especially testosterone.

The typical sequence is:

YYY chromosome → SRY gene → testes → testosterone → typically male development

AQA mark schemes identify this as a central chromosome-based explanation. They also recognise that chromosomes can have indirect effects on gender roles and gender stereotyping.

Typical XXXXXX development

A typical XXXXXX chromosome pattern does not include a YYY chromosome or SRY gene.

This is normally associated with:

• Ovarian development.

• Greater influence of oestrogen.

• Typically female sexual development.

The simplified pathway is:

XXXXXX pattern → no SRY gene → ovaries → oestrogen → typically female development

This does not mean that testosterone is absent in females or oestrogen is absent in males. All people produce several sex-related hormones, but typical levels and developmental effects differ.

Chromosomes may influence gender indirectly

Chromosomes have a direct role in biological sex development, but their influence on gender-related behaviour may be indirect.

For example:

1. Chromosomes affect hormone production.

2. Hormones may affect brain and behavioural development.

3. Physical characteristics affect how others categorise the child.

4. Parents, peers and wider society may respond according to that categorisation.

5. Biological and social influences then interact during gender development.

This is more complete than claiming that an XXXXXX or XYXYXY pattern directly creates a particular toy preference, personality trait or gender role.

Chromosomes and brain development

Chromosomes and hormones may contribute to sex-related differences in brain structures.

AQA materials identify the sexually dimorphic nucleus, or SDN, within the hypothalamus.

A sexually dimorphic structure is one that shows typical differences between males and females.

Testosterone may contribute to the larger average size of this area in males.

This could provide a possible biological pathway between:

• Chromosome pattern.

• Hormone activity.

• Brain development.

• Gender-related behaviour.

However, a difference in average brain structure does not mean that every male and female brain can be placed into two completely separate categories.

Chromosomal variations

Variations in the 23rd chromosome pair provide evidence that sex chromosomes influence development.

AQA materials identify:

• XXYXXYXXY, associated with Klinefelter’s syndrome.

• X0X0X0, associated with Turner syndrome.

These patterns are examined fully in chromosomal and hormonal variation.

Klinefelter’s syndrome

A person with Klinefelter’s syndrome has an XXYXXYXXY chromosome pattern and develops as male because the YYY chromosome normally includes the SRY gene.

Possible associated characteristics include:

• Small testes.

• Lower testosterone.

• Reduced facial hair.

• Greater than average height.

• Some cognitive or emotional differences.

Turner syndrome

A person with Turner syndrome has an X0X0X0 chromosome pattern and develops as female.

Possible associated characteristics include:

• Underdeveloped ovaries.

• Lower oestrogen production.

• Shorter stature.

• Limited development of some secondary sexual characteristics.

• Infertility.

The existence of predictable differences associated with chromosome variations supports the claim that chromosomes influence development.

What chromosomal variations demonstrate

Klinefelter’s and Turner syndrome suggest that chromosomes affect:

• Gonadal development.

• Hormone levels.

• Physical development.

• Some aspects of cognition and behaviour.

However, they also show that chromosomes do not operate independently.

The influence of an additional or missing chromosome is often expressed through its effects on hormone production.

Chromosome-based and hormonal explanations are therefore closely connected.

Hormonal explanations

What is a hormonal explanation?

A hormonal explanation proposes that differences in hormone exposure or hormone activity contribute to differences in gender development.

The main hormones named by AQA are:

• Testosterone

• Oestrogen

• Oxytocin

Hormones act as chemical messengers. They travel through the bloodstream and affect body tissues with suitable receptors.

Hormonal explanations may focus on:

• Prenatal hormone exposure.

• Hormone levels during puberty.

• Hormonal effects on the brain.

• Associations between hormones and gender-related behaviour.

Testosterone and gender development

Testosterone and typical male development

Testosterone is an androgen produced in higher quantities by the testes.

It contributes to:

• Typically male sexual characteristics.

• Pubertal changes.

• Possible sex differences in brain development.

• Some behaviours traditionally described as male typed.

The pathway is:

XYXYXY chromosomes → SRY → testes → testosterone → typically male development

Testosterone and aggression

Testosterone has been associated with aggression.

As males show higher typical testosterone levels, psychologists have investigated whether testosterone contributes to average sex differences in aggressive behaviour.

A biological explanation proposes that testosterone may increase a tendency towards:

• Aggression.

• Dominance.

• Competition.

However, testosterone does not make aggression inevitable.

Aggression is also influenced by:

• Social learning.

• Provocation.

• Cultural expectations.

• Reinforcement.

• Individual interpretation of a situation.

📌 Exam tip: Testosterone and aggression are relevant only when you explain what the evidence suggests about gender-related development. An isolated paragraph about aggression may drift away from the question.

Young’s animal research

Young investigated the effects of male hormones on female rats.

Administering male hormones produced changes in the animals’ behaviour.

This supports a hormonal explanation because:

• Hormone exposure was manipulated.

• Behaviour changed afterwards.

• The study suggests hormones can causally influence sex-related behaviour.

However, rats cannot model every aspect of human gender development.

Human gender involves:

• Language.

• Self-concept.

• Social roles.

• Cultural expectations.

• Conscious understanding of identity.

The evidence therefore supports a biological mechanism but has limited generalisability.

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia, known as CAH, involves greater than usual exposure to androgens.

Research identified in AQA mark schemes has found that females with CAH may show:

• Increased aggression.

• More male-typed interests or behaviour.

• Increased cross-gender behaviour.

Berenbaum and Bailey linked CAH with increased aggression and behaviour historically described as less conventionally feminine. Hines also reported increased cross-gender behaviour among individuals with CAH.

This supports hormonal explanations because increased androgen exposure is associated with differences in gender-related behaviour.

Evaluating CAH evidence

CAH research investigates naturally occurring hormonal variation in humans, which may make it more relevant than animal research.

However, cause and effect remain difficult to establish.

Individuals with CAH may also differ in:

• Physical development.

• Medical treatment.

• Parental expectations.

• Social experiences.

• Awareness of their condition.

Parents or peers might respond differently to a child with CAH, influencing behaviour through learning.

The findings may therefore show an interaction between hormonal and environmental influences rather than a purely biological cause.

Opposite-sex hormone research

Van Goozen investigated people receiving hormones associated with the opposite biological sex.

Changes were reported in areas such as:

• Aggression.

• Visuospatial skills.

This is consistent with a hormonal explanation because behaviour or cognition changed alongside hormonal treatment.

However, participants may also experience changes in:

• Social treatment.

• Confidence.

• Expectations.

• Identity expression.

• Personal circumstances.

Hormonal treatment is therefore not the only variable changing during the research.

Oestrogen and gender development

Oestrogen and typical female development

Oestrogen is produced in higher typical quantities by the ovaries.

It contributes to:

• Typically female sexual characteristics.

• Pubertal development.

• Reproductive functioning.

• Menstruation.

A hormonal explanation proposes that oestrogen may also contribute to average behavioural differences between males and females.

Oestrogen and emotional behaviour

Oestrogen has been linked with emotional changes associated with the menstrual cycle and premenstrual syndrome.

This has been used to suggest that hormone fluctuations may influence:

• Mood.

• Irritability.

• Emotional responsiveness.

However, this evidence must be handled cautiously.

It does not justify statements such as:

“Women are emotional because of oestrogen.”

Such a conclusion:

• Treats an average association as a universal rule.

• Ignores individual differences.

• Overlooks social and situational influences.

• Risks reinforcing gender stereotypes.

A hormonal explanation should state that oestrogen may contribute to emotional changes, not that it completely determines behaviour.

Oxytocin and gender development

Oxytocin and social behaviour

Oxytocin has been associated with:

• Nurturing.

• Trust.

• Social bonding.

• Pair bonding.

• Responses to stress.

AQA materials describe higher typical levels of oxytocin in females and identify it as a possible influence on sex differences in behaviour.

Oxytocin and tend and befriend

Taylor proposed that females may be more likely to respond to stress through tend and befriend behaviour.

This involves:

• Caring for or protecting others.

• Seeking social contact.

• Using social support.

Oxytocin is proposed as one biological influence on this tendency.

The explanation may help account for average differences in stress responses, but it does not mean that:

• Every female tends and befriends.

• Every male uses fight or flight.

• Nurturing is exclusively female.

• Stress responses are controlled by one hormone.

Oxytocin and pair bonding

Insel investigated pair bonding in prairie voles.

The findings associated oxytocin with the formation of social bonds.

This supports the hormonal explanation because it suggests a biological mechanism involved in bonding behaviour.

However, pair bonding in non-human animals is not equivalent to human gender development.

Human bonding is influenced by:

• Personal beliefs.

• Relationship experiences.

• Social norms.

• Communication.

• Cultural expectations.

Oxytocin may contribute to bonding but cannot provide a complete explanation of human nurturing or relationship behaviour.

Hormones and gender-related behaviour

The hormonal explanation can be summarised as follows:

Hormone	Typical biological role	Possible gender-related influence
Testosterone	Typically male sexual development	Aggression, dominance and some male-typed behaviour
Oestrogen	Typically female sexual development and menstruation	Possible emotional changes
Oxytocin	Social and reproductive processes	Nurturing, trust, bonding and tend-and-befriend responses

These associations concern average patterns and probabilities.

They should not be used to predict an individual’s:

• Gender identity.

• Personality.

• Interests.

• Career choices.

• Behaviour in every situation.

Chromosome and hormone explanations compared

Chromosome-based and hormonal explanations are not competing accounts.

Chromosomes partly exert their effects through hormones.

Chromosome-based explanation	Hormonal explanation
Focuses on inherited XXXXXX, XYXYXY and other chromosome patterns	Focuses on chemical messengers
Includes the SRY gene	Includes testosterone, oestrogen and oxytocin
Explains which gonads typically develop	Explains effects on body tissues and behaviour
Begins at fertilisation	Operates prenatally and across later development
Influences gender partly through hormone production	Provides one pathway from chromosomes to behaviour

The combined biological explanation is:

chromosomes influence hormone production, and hormones affect physical, brain and behavioural development

Biological sex and gender identity

Biological explanations are strongest when explaining:

• Biological sexual development.

• Some average behavioural differences.

• Biological predispositions.

They are less able to explain the full complexity of gender identity.

A chromosome or hormone level does not directly show whether a person identifies as:

• A man.

• A woman.

• Non-binary.

• Gender fluid.

The distinction is explored in binary, non-binary and gender-fluid identities.

Applying biological explanations

Consider the following scenario:

Luca has an XYXYXY chromosome pattern. The SRY gene caused testes to develop, producing relatively high levels of testosterone. Luca frequently chooses competitive physical activities and displays more aggressive behaviour than many classmates.

A biological explanation could be applied as follows:

• Luca’s YYY chromosome normally contains the SRY gene.

• SRY initiated testicular development.

• The testes produced testosterone.

• Testosterone has been linked with aggression and male-typed behaviour.

• Luca’s biological development may therefore contribute to the behaviour described.

However, a strong answer would not say that testosterone is the only possible cause.

Luca’s behaviour may also have been influenced by:

• Role models.

• Reinforcement.

• Peers.

• Cultural expectations.

• Opportunities to participate in physical activities.

Application involving oxytocin

Consider another scenario:

During a stressful situation, Maya seeks support from close friends and spends time comforting a younger sibling.

A hormonal explanation might suggest that:

• Oxytocin is associated with nurturing and social bonding.

• It may contribute to tend-and-befriend responses to stress.

• Maya’s caring and support-seeking behaviour is consistent with this proposed influence.

This explanation identifies a biological contribution rather than proving that oxytocin caused the behaviour.

Application answer structure

Use:

scenario detail → biological component → mechanism → possible behavioural effect

For example:

“The scenario states that Arun has an XYXYXY chromosome pattern. The YYY chromosome normally contains SRY, which causes testes to develop. The testes produce testosterone, which has been associated with aggression and some male-typed behaviour. This biological pathway may therefore contribute to Arun’s behaviour.”

Avoid:

“Arun behaves like a boy because he has XYXYXY chromosomes.”

The second statement is vague, stereotypical and biologically incomplete.

Evaluating biological explanations

Strength: evidence supports hormonal influences

Research involving hormone exposure provides evidence that hormones can influence behaviour.

Supporting findings include:

• Behavioural changes following hormone manipulation in animals.

• Associations between CAH and more male-typed behaviour.

• Changes associated with opposite-sex hormone treatment.

• Links between oxytocin and pair bonding.

AQA mark schemes recognise these studies as relevant evidence for biological explanations of sex and gender.

This suggests that gender-related behaviour is not produced entirely by learning or culture.

Strength: biological explanations identify mechanisms

The approach provides a clear developmental sequence:

chromosome pattern → SRY or absence of SRY → gonads → hormone production → developmental effects

This has scientific value because the biological variables can often be:

• Measured.

• Compared.

• Observed.

• Manipulated in animal research.

A mechanism-based explanation is stronger than simply observing that males and females often behave differently.

Strength: DSD provides naturally occurring evidence

Androgen insensitivity syndrome, Klinefelter’s syndrome and Turner syndrome help separate the roles of:

• Chromosomes.

• Gonads.

• Hormone production.

• Hormone sensitivity.

For example, AIS demonstrates that XYXYXY chromosomes and androgen production do not result in typical male external development when tissues cannot respond to androgens.

This supports a biological explanation while showing that it must include several interacting mechanisms.

Limitation: animal research may not generalise

Some of the strongest causal evidence comes from non-human animals.

Hormones can be manipulated under controlled conditions, allowing researchers to investigate whether behaviour changes.

However, animals do not experience human gender in terms of:

• Identity.

• Social meaning.

• Language.

• Gender roles.

• Cultural expectations.

Animal research may explain biological sexual behaviour more successfully than human gender development.

Limitation: naturally occurring evidence lacks control

Researchers cannot ethically assign people to:

• Different chromosome patterns.

• High prenatal testosterone.

• Androgen insensitivity.

• CAH.

They must investigate naturally occurring groups.

These groups may differ in many ways other than the biological factor being studied.

Possible confounding variables include:

• Medical treatment.

• Family response.

• Physical characteristics.

• Social expectations.

• Educational experience.

This makes it difficult to isolate chromosomes or hormones as the cause of behavioural differences.

Limitation: biological reductionism

Biological explanations can be reductionist because they explain complex gender development through:

• Chromosomes.

• Hormones.

• Brain structures.

This may make the explanation scientific and testable.

However, gender development also involves:

• Thinking and understanding.

• Observation and imitation.

• Reinforcement.

• Cultural expectations.

• Media.

• Personal identity.

Reducing gender to chemicals or chromosomes ignores these higher-level influences.

This issue is explored further in biological reductionism and levels of explanation.

Limitation: biological determinism

Biological explanations can become deterministic if they suggest that chromosomes and hormones make behaviour inevitable.

Examples of deterministic claims include:

• Testosterone causes males to be aggressive.

• Oestrogen causes females to be emotional.

• Oxytocin makes females naturally nurturing.

• XYXYXY chromosomes determine a masculine identity.

These statements underestimate:

• Individual choice.

• Learning.

• Cultural variation.

• Situational influences.

A more defensible position is that biology creates predispositions that interact with the environment.

This links with biological determinism and personal control.

Limitation: a strict binary assumption

A strongly chromosome-based explanation may present gender as fixed into two categories from birth.

This is challenged by:

• Diversity in sex development.

• Non-binary identities.

• Gender-fluid identities.

• Variation within males and females.

• Overlap in traits and behaviour.

The AQA mark scheme identifies hard determinism and a fixed binary view of gender as possible criticisms of biological explanations.

This does not mean that biological differences do not exist. It means that typical biological patterns do not describe every person’s gender experience.

Limitation: social and cultural variation

Gender roles vary between:

• Cultures.

• Historical periods.

• Social groups.

For example, expectations about:

• Childcare.

• Employment.

• Emotional expression.

• Clothing.

• Aggression.

are not identical across every society.

If chromosomes and hormones completely determined gender roles, much less cultural variation would be expected.

Cultural differences therefore support explanations based on social learning and social construction.

These influences are examined in cultural and media influences on gender roles].

Alternative explanation: social learning theory

Social learning theory proposes that children learn gender-related behaviour through:

• Observation.

• Imitation.

• Identification.

• Direct reinforcement.

• Vicarious reinforcement.

This can explain why gender behaviour changes when:

• Different models are available.

• Reinforcement patterns change.

• Media representations change.

• Cultural expectations differ.

Biological explanations may account for predispositions, while social learning explains how particular behaviours are encouraged or discouraged.

Alternative explanation: cognitive theories

Cognitive explanations propose that gender development depends on how children understand and organise gender information.

These include:

• The stages of gender understanding.

• The development and use of gender schemas.

These explanations can account for:

• Age-related changes.

• Active information processing.

• How children categorise behaviour.

• Why children seek gender-consistent information.

Chromosomes and hormones cannot by themselves explain these cognitive processes.

Strength: an interactionist account

Biological and environmental explanations do not have to be treated as mutually exclusive.

An interactionist explanation proposes that biology and experience work together.

For example:

1. Hormones may create a predisposition towards energetic or competitive behaviour.

2. Adults notice the behaviour and encourage activities that match gender stereotypes.

3. The child receives reinforcement and develops relevant skills.

4. The behaviour becomes more frequent.

5. The child incorporates the behaviour into their gender schema.

This combines:

• Biological predispositions.

• Social learning.

• Cognitive development.

• Cultural expectations.

An interactionist explanation may provide a more complete account than chromosomes or learning alone.

This links with heredity, environment and interactionism.

Limitation: social sensitivity

Research into biological differences between genders is socially sensitive.

Findings may be misused to claim that:

• Men are naturally better suited to leadership.

• Women are naturally responsible for childcare.

• Aggression is unavoidable in males.

• Gender roles cannot change.

• Non-binary identities are biologically invalid.

These conclusions go beyond the evidence.

Researchers must distinguish:

• Average group differences.

• Individual characteristics.

• Biological influence.

• Biological inevitability.

This issue is explored through the possible consequences of psychological research.

Biological explanations and gender stereotypes

Biological research can unintentionally reinforce stereotypes by treating culturally defined behaviour as evidence of innate masculinity or femininity.

For example, describing:

• Aggression as naturally male.

• Nurturing as naturally female.

may overlook how these behaviours are taught and socially rewarded.

It may also ignore considerable overlap between individuals.

A biological influence does not mean that the behaviour is:

• Exclusive to one gender.

• Fixed.

• Desirable.

• Unchangeable.

Overall conclusion

Biological explanations propose that gender development is influenced by:

• Sex chromosomes.

• The SRY gene.

• Gonadal development.

• Testosterone.

• Oestrogen.

• Oxytocin.

• Hormonal effects on body and brain development.

Evidence from animal research, CAH, hormone treatment and diversity in sex development supports the conclusion that biological factors contribute to gender-related behaviour.

However, biological explanations become incomplete when they:

• Treat gender as fixed and binary.

• Generalise animal behaviour directly to humans.

• Ignore confounding social influences.

• Reduce complex identities and roles to hormones.

• Present biological predispositions as inevitable outcomes.

The strongest conclusion is interactionist:

Chromosomes and hormones influence development, but their effects operate alongside cognition, learning, culture and individual experience.

Hints from the Examiner Reports 💡

Examiner hint: Shape evidence directly to gender development. In the 2022 examination, students often discussed testosterone, the YYY chromosome and aggression without explaining what the evidence showed about gender. This limited the effectiveness of otherwise relevant material.

Examiner hint: Cover both parts of the explanation. A long answer about testosterone cannot fully answer a question requiring chromosomes and hormones.

Examiner hint: Explain the biological sequence. Use:

YYY chromosome → SRY gene → testes → testosterone → developmental effects

Do not present these as disconnected facts.

Examiner hint: Distinguish biological sex from gender development. Chromosomes directly influence sexual development, while effects on roles, behaviour and identity may be indirect.

Examiner hint: Do not merely name a study. State:

1. What biological factor was investigated.

2. What behaviour was found.

3. How the finding supports or challenges the explanation.

4. What limits the conclusion.

Examiner hint: Develop discussion. The 2022 question allocated 666 marks to knowledge and 101010 marks to discussion, so an answer dominated by description could not reach the highest level.

Examiner hint: Avoid absolute language. Write that testosterone may influence aggression rather than that it makes all males aggressive.

Examiner hint: Use alternative explanations effectively. Do not simply state that social learning theory exists. Explain how learning or cultural variation challenges the claim that gender behaviour is biologically fixed.

Examiner hint: Link issues and debates precisely:

• Reductionism concerns explaining gender through biological components.

• Determinism concerns treating the outcome as inevitable.

• Social sensitivity concerns the consequences of the explanation.

Common Mistakes ⚠️

Mistake: Explaining only biological sex

Why this is incorrect:

The question concerns gender development. Describing testes and sexual characteristics without linking them to gender-related behaviour is incomplete.

How to improve:

Explain how chromosome and hormone differences may influence brain development, aggression, nurturing or gender-typed behaviour.

Mistake: Saying chromosomes directly cause behaviour

Why this is incorrect:

Chromosomes normally influence behaviour through genes, gonads, hormones and interactions with the environment.

How to improve:

Explain the full developmental pathway.

Mistake: Saying the YYY chromosome produces testosterone

Why this is incorrect:

The SRY gene initiates testicular development. The testes produce testosterone.

How to improve:

Use:

YYY → SRY → testes → testosterone

Mistake: Treating chromosomes and hormones as separate explanations

Why this is incomplete:

Chromosomes influence which gonads develop and therefore affect hormone production.

How to improve:

Explain how the biological processes connect.

Mistake: Saying males have testosterone and females have oestrogen

Why this is incorrect:

People produce both hormones. Their typical levels and developmental roles differ.

How to improve:

Use “typically higher” rather than “present only in”.

Mistake: Treating testosterone as an aggression switch

Why this is incorrect:

Aggression is influenced by biology, learning, culture and the situation.

How to improve:

Describe testosterone as a possible predisposition.

Mistake: Saying oestrogen makes women emotional

Why this is incorrect:

This is an exaggerated stereotype based on a possible association between hormonal fluctuations and emotional changes.

How to improve:

Use cautious language and acknowledge individual differences.

Mistake: Saying oxytocin makes every female nurturing

Why this is incorrect:

Oxytocin is one possible influence, and nurturing behaviour also depends on learning and experience.

How to improve:

Refer to average tendencies and tend-and-befriend behaviour.

Mistake: Using animal research as proof of human gender identity

Why this is incorrect:

Animal studies can investigate hormones and behaviour but cannot reproduce human identity, culture or social roles.

How to improve:

Use animal evidence to support a biological mechanism and then evaluate generalisability.

Mistake: Treating CAH evidence as a controlled experiment

Why this is incorrect:

CAH is naturally occurring, so participants may differ in other biological and social ways.

How to improve:

Identify possible confounding variables.

Mistake: Saying biology proves gender is binary

Why this is incorrect:

Typical biological pathways do not describe every chromosome pattern, sexual development or gender identity.

How to improve:

Recognise DSD, non-binary identities, gender fluidity and variation within groups.

Mistake: Naming reductionism without explaining it

Why this is incorrect:

The term alone does not show why the explanation is limited.

How to improve:

Explain that reducing gender to chromosomes or hormones ignores cognition, learning, culture and personal experience.

Mistake: Giving an unrelated evidence paragraph

Why this is incorrect:

Evidence about aggression receives limited credit when no link is made to the development of gender-related behaviour.

How to improve:

End the paragraph by stating exactly what it suggests about the biological explanation of gender.

Exam-Style Questions ✍️

Questions

1. What are the two biological influences on gender development named in the AQA specification?[2 marks]

2. Explain how the YYY chromosome may influence gender development.[4 marks]

3. Explain one way in which testosterone may influence gender-related behaviour.[3 marks]

4. Explain two possible roles of oxytocin in gender-related behaviour.[4 marks]

5. Amari has an XYXYXY chromosome pattern. The SRY gene initiated testicular development, and Amari was exposed to relatively high levels of testosterone during development. Amari displays high levels of aggressive and competitive behaviour.

Explain Amari’s behaviour using a biological explanation of gender development.[4 marks]

6. A study compares mean aggression scores in two groups of children.

Group	Mean aggression score
Children with greater prenatal androgen exposure	18.4
Children with typical prenatal androgen exposure	12.1

Explain one conclusion that could be drawn and one limitation of that conclusion.[4 marks]

7. Explain one way in which social learning theory challenges biological explanations of gender development.[3 marks]

8. Outline one strength and one limitation of using non-human animal research to investigate hormonal explanations of gender development.[4 marks]

9. Outline one strength and one limitation of biological explanations of gender development.[6 marks]

10. Discuss biological explanations of gender development. Refer to chromosomes and hormones in your answer.[16 marks]

Answers and Mark Scheme

Question 1

Award one mark for each:

• Chromosomes.

• Hormones.

Question 2

Award up to four marks:

• The YYY chromosome normally contains the SRY gene.

• SRY initiates the development of testes.

• The testes produce androgens, particularly testosterone.

• Testosterone contributes to typically male development and may influence some male-typed behaviour.

Question 3

Award up to three marks:

• Testosterone is an androgen normally present at higher levels in males.

• It has been linked with aggression, dominance or other male-typed behaviour.

• Higher testosterone may create a predisposition towards such behaviour, although it does not make the behaviour inevitable.

Question 4

Award up to two marks for each explained role.

Possible answers include:

• Oxytocin may contribute to nurturing behaviour.

• It may promote trust or social bonding.

• It may contribute to pair bonding.

• It may influence tend-and-befriend responses during stress.

Question 5

Award up to four marks:

• Amari’s YYY chromosome normally contains the SRY gene.

• SRY initiated the development of testes.

• The testes produced testosterone.

• Testosterone has been linked with aggression and competitive or male-typed behaviour.

• The hormone exposure may therefore contribute to Amari’s behaviour.

Do not credit the claim that testosterone is necessarily the only cause.

Question 6

Award up to four marks:

• The group with greater prenatal androgen exposure had the higher mean aggression score.

• The difference was 6.36.36.3 points.

• This is consistent with a possible influence of androgens on aggression.

• The result does not establish causality because the groups may differ in other biological or social ways.

• Social treatment, medical experiences or another variable may explain part of the difference.

Do not credit a claim that the difference is statistically significant because no inferential-test result is provided.

Question 7

Award up to three marks:

• Social learning theory proposes that gender-related behaviour is acquired through observation, imitation and reinforcement.

• Differences may therefore result from parents, peers or media rather than chromosomes or hormones alone.

• Cultural and historical changes in gender roles challenge the claim that the behaviour is biologically fixed.

Question 8

Award up to two marks for a strength and two marks for a limitation.

Possible strength:

Hormones can be manipulated under controlled conditions, allowing researchers to investigate causal effects on behaviour.

Possible limitation:

Animal behaviour may not generalise to human gender development because human identity and gender roles involve language, cognition and culture.

Question 9

Award up to three marks for a developed strength and three marks for a developed limitation.

Possible strength:

Research involving CAH, hormonal treatment and animal manipulation supports the view that hormones influence gender-related behaviour. This provides empirical support for a biological contribution.

Possible limitation:

The explanation may be biologically reductionist because it explains complex identities and behaviour through chromosomes and hormones while overlooking learning, cognition and culture.

Alternative creditworthy limitations include:

• Biological determinism.

• Limited generalisability from animals.

• Confounding variables in naturally occurring groups.

• Social sensitivity.

• Cultural variation.

• Binary assumptions.

Question 10

A strong response should include:

Knowledge and understanding

• Biological explanations as chromosome-based and hormonal.

• Typical XXXXXX and XYXYXY chromosome patterns.

• The YYY chromosome and SRY gene.

• Development of testes.

• Testosterone production.

• Testosterone and male sexual characteristics.

• Testosterone and possible aggression or male-typed behaviour.

• Oestrogen and typically female development.

• Oestrogen and possible emotional changes.

• Oxytocin and nurturing.

• Oxytocin and trust or pair bonding.

• Oxytocin and tend-and-befriend responses.

• Possible links with brain development, including the SDN.

• The interaction between chromosomes and hormones.

Evaluation

• Evidence from hormone manipulation.

• CAH and increased androgen exposure.

• Opposite-sex hormone research.

• Oxytocin and pair-bonding research.

• Limited generalisability of animal studies.

• Confounding variables in naturally occurring groups.

• Biological reductionism.

• Biological determinism.

• Social sensitivity and possible reinforcement of stereotypes.

• Gender diversity and limitations of a strict binary account.

• Cultural differences in gender roles.

• Cognitive and social learning alternatives.

• The value of an interactionist explanation.

Higher-level responses will address both chromosomes and hormones, shape evidence directly to gender development and develop evaluation rather than listing studies or issues without explanation.