Comparison of approaches | AQA A-Level Psychology Revision

For 7182 specification, first teach in September 2025

AQA A-Level Psychology | Free Revision Notes

Estimated study time: 60 minutes

These Comparison of approaches A-Level Psychology revision notes bring together the six main perspectives required by AQA. You will compare what each approach sees as the main cause of behaviour, how each investigates psychology and the extent to which each recognises biological, environmental, cognitive or unconscious influences. Understanding these similarities and differences will help you construct analytical comparisons rather than writing six separate descriptions. It also prepares you to apply debates such as determinism, nature and nurture, and reductionism across the course.

Learning Objectives 🎯

By the end of this revision page, you should be able to:

• Describe the basic assumptions of the six psychological approaches.

• Compare how the approaches explain human behaviour.

• Analyse similarities and differences between related approaches.

• Compare the approaches in relation to free will and determinism.

• Compare the relative importance given to biological and environmental influences.

• Evaluate the scientific and explanatory strengths and limitations of the approaches.

Revision Notes 📚

Comparison of approaches A-Level Psychology revision overview

The AQA specification requires students to understand and compare:

1. The behaviourist approach

2. Social learning theory

3. The cognitive approach

4. The biological approach

5. The psychodynamic approach

6. Humanistic Psychology

Each approach attempts to explain behaviour, but they differ in:

• The causes they emphasise.

• Whether they focus on observable or internal processes.

• The role given to choice.

• The importance given to biology and experience.

• The way psychological explanations are investigated.

• The level at which behaviour is explained.

The course plan places comparison after all six approaches so that their assumptions can be considered together.

Overview of the six approaches

Approach	Central focus	Key specification concepts
Behaviourist approach	Behaviour learned through interaction with the environment	Classical conditioning, operant conditioning, reinforcement, Pavlov and Skinner
Social learning theory	Behaviour learned by observing other people	Imitation, identification, vicarious reinforcement, mediational processes and Bandura
Cognitive approach	Internal mental processing	Internal mental processes, schemas, models and inference
Biological approach	Physical and inherited influences on behaviour	Genotype, phenotype, evolution, biological structures and neurochemistry
Psychodynamic approach	Unconscious processes and personality conflict	Unconscious, Id, Ego, Superego, defence mechanisms and psychosexual stages
Humanistic Psychology	Personal choice, growth and fulfilment of potential	Free will, self-actualisation, Maslow’s hierarchy, congruence and conditions of worth

A comparison answer should go beyond reproducing this table. It must explain how the assumptions lead to different accounts of the same behaviour.

The behaviourist approach

The behaviourist approach explains behaviour as learned through experience.

Its two main forms of learning are:

• Classical conditioning, learning through associations between stimuli.

• Operant conditioning, learning through the consequences of behaviour.

Behaviourists focus strongly on observable and measurable responses. They aim to identify environmental conditions that cause behaviour to develop, increase or decrease.

For example, a fear response could be explained as learned through an association between a previously neutral stimulus and a frightening event.

Avoidance of the feared stimulus might then be maintained because escaping reduces anxiety. The reduction in anxiety acts as negative reinforcement.

Review these learning processes through associations between stimuli and learning through consequences.

Social learning theory

Social learning theory also explains behaviour as learned from the environment, but it introduces a social and cognitive element.

Behaviour can be acquired by observing a model.

The theory includes:

• Imitation

• Identification

• Vicarious reinforcement

• Mediational processes

Unlike operant conditioning, the observer does not need to receive reinforcement personally. They may be influenced by seeing a model rewarded or punished.

Social learning theory also recognises that observation does not automatically lead to imitation. Attention, retention, motor reproduction and motivation intervene between what is observed and what is performed.

This is examined in detail through observational learning and mediational processes.

The cognitive approach

The cognitive approach studies internal mental processes.

These processes cannot be observed directly, so psychologists:

1. Observe behaviour.

2. Record measurable responses.

3. Use models to represent mental processes.

4. Make inferences about the processing that may have occurred.

The approach also proposes that schemas organise knowledge and influence how people attend to, interpret and remember information.

Unlike the behaviourist approach, the cognitive approach does not explain behaviour only through external stimuli and consequences. It considers how the individual processes information.

Review these assumptions in schemas, models and inference.

The biological approach

The biological approach explains behaviour through physical processes.

It includes:

• The genetic basis of behaviour.

• Genotype and phenotype.

• Evolution.

• Biological structures.

• Neurochemistry.

A biological psychologist might explain differences in behaviour through inherited genetic information, the functioning of the nervous system or chemical communication within biological systems.

Phenotype shows that observable characteristics may result from the interaction between genotype and environment. Therefore, a biological contribution does not always mean that environmental influences are irrelevant.

These assumptions are covered through genetic and biological influences on behaviour.

The psychodynamic approach

The psychodynamic approach explains behaviour through unconscious psychological processes.

Personality is described in terms of:

• The Id, which seeks immediate satisfaction.

• The Ego, which manages the Id, Superego and external reality.

• The Superego, which represents moral standards.

Conflict between these parts of personality may be managed through:

• Repression

• Denial

• Displacement

The approach also uses psychosexual stages to account for how experiences during early development may influence later behaviour.

Unlike the cognitive approach, which studies information processing, the psychodynamic approach focuses on unconscious wishes, memories and conflicts.

Review the main assumptions through unconscious conflict and defence mechanisms.

Humanistic Psychology

Humanistic Psychology emphasises free will, personal growth and self-actualisation.

It proposes that:

• Individuals have the capacity to make choices.

• People may work towards fulfilling their potential.

• Maslow’s hierarchy connects the fulfilment of needs with movement towards self-actualisation.

• Congruence supports personal development.

• Conditions of worth may create incongruence and restrict growth.

Humanistic Psychology differs sharply from approaches that explain behaviour mainly through determining causes.

Its assumptions are covered through free will and personal growth.

Comparing the behaviourist approach and social learning theory

These approaches share a focus on learning from the environment.

Similarity or difference	Behaviourist approach	Social learning theory
Role of the environment	Behaviour is learned from environmental stimuli and consequences	Behaviour is learned within a social environment
Reinforcement	Usually experienced directly	May be experienced directly or observed vicariously
Observation of models	Not central	Central to learning
Internal processes	Gives limited attention to mental processing	Includes mediational processes
Learner’s role	Behaviour is shaped by associations and consequences	The observer attends to, remembers and decides whether to reproduce behaviour

Key similarity

Both approaches emphasise nurture because experience affects behaviour.

Key difference

Social learning theory includes processes between environmental experience and behaviour. The observer does not automatically copy the model.

For example, a child may observe a behaviour but fail to imitate it because they:

• Did not retain it.

• Cannot reproduce it.

• Are not motivated.

• Do not identify with the model.

Social learning theory therefore provides a less automatic account of learning than strict conditioning.

Comparing the behaviourist and cognitive approaches

The behaviourist and cognitive approaches differ in their treatment of internal mental processes.

Behaviourist approach	Cognitive approach
Focuses on observable behaviour	Studies internal mental processes
Explains learning through conditioning	Explains behaviour through information processing
Emphasises environmental stimuli and consequences	Emphasises interpretation, schemas and cognitive models
Avoids relying heavily on unobservable processes	Makes inferences about processes that cannot be directly observed
Often studies measurable responses	Also uses measurable responses as evidence

The approaches nevertheless share an important similarity. Both can use controlled procedures and objective measurements.

The difference lies in how the evidence is interpreted:

• A behaviourist uses observable change to investigate learning.

• A cognitive psychologist uses observable performance to infer internal processing.

Comparing the cognitive and biological approaches

The cognitive approach explains how information is processed. The biological approach explains how physical systems influence behaviour.

Cognitive approach	Biological approach
Studies internal mental processes	Studies biological processes
Uses schemas and models	Uses genetic, structural and neurochemical explanations
Makes inferences from behaviour	Relates behaviour to biological functioning
Explains behaviour at a cognitive level	Explains behaviour at a biological level

These explanations can be linked rather than treated as competing alternatives.

Cognitive neuroscience investigates relationships between mental processing and biological structures or processes. It combines behavioural evidence, cognitive models and biological measurements.

This relationship is explored in linking cognition with biological functioning.

Comparing the cognitive and psychodynamic approaches

Both approaches propose that important psychological processes cannot be directly observed.

Cognitive approach	Psychodynamic approach
Investigates information processing	Investigates unconscious wishes and conflict
Uses models and schemas	Uses the Id, Ego and Superego
Makes inferences from controlled task performance	Infers unconscious processes from behaviour
Produces predictions about observable performance	Some explanations may be more difficult to test directly
Focuses on processes such as interpretation and memory	Focuses on personality conflict and early experience

Both approaches go beyond surface behaviour, but the processes they propose are very different.

The cognitive approach is concerned with how information is processed. The psychodynamic approach is concerned with hidden psychological causes.

Comparing the biological and behaviourist approaches

The biological and behaviourist approaches both search for causes of behaviour, but they locate those causes differently.

Biological approach	Behaviourist approach
Causes are located in inherited or physical processes	Causes are located in environmental learning
Emphasises genotype, structures and neurochemistry	Emphasises conditioning and reinforcement
Closely associated with nature	Closely associated with nurture
May be biologically deterministic	May be environmentally deterministic
May use biological reductionism	May use stimulus-response reductionism

Both can generate testable predictions and use objective measurements.

However, a purely biological account may overlook learning, while a purely behaviourist account may overlook inherited and physical influences.

Comparing the psychodynamic and humanistic approaches

These approaches present sharply different views of human behaviour.

Psychodynamic approach	Humanistic Psychology
Emphasises unconscious causes	Emphasises conscious choice
Associated with psychic determinism	Emphasises free will
Gives a major role to early experience	Focuses on personal growth and potential
Explains behaviour through conflict	Explains behaviour through movement towards or barriers to self-actualisation
Includes defence mechanisms	Includes congruence and conditions of worth

The psychodynamic approach suggests that people may not understand the true causes of their behaviour.

Humanistic Psychology gives individuals a more active role in choosing their direction and pursuing development.

Comparing the approaches through free will and determinism

The free will and determinism debate asks whether people choose their behaviour or whether behaviour is caused by factors outside their control.

Approach	Position suggested by its assumptions
Behaviourist	Behaviour is caused by environmental learning
Social learning theory	Social experience influences behaviour, but mediational processes affect performance
Cognitive	Behaviour is influenced by internal processing and interpretation
Biological	Behaviour is influenced by genetics, biological structures and neurochemistry
Psychodynamic	Behaviour is influenced by unconscious psychological causes
Humanistic	Emphasises conscious choice and free will

The three forms of determinism named in the specification are:

• Environmental determinism

• Biological determinism

• Psychic determinism

These correspond most clearly with the behaviourist, biological and psychodynamic approaches.

Humanistic Psychology offers the clearest contrast because free will is one of its central assumptions.

Evaluating deterministic explanations

Deterministic explanations have scientific value because they encourage psychologists to identify causes.

If behaviour has causes, psychologists can:

• Develop predictions.

• Test relationships.

• Explain patterns.

• Investigate interventions.

However, strict determinism may underestimate:

• Conscious choice.

• Personal responsibility.

• The possibility that people respond differently to similar influences.

A balanced comparison should recognise both the scientific value and the possible limitation of determinism.

Comparing the approaches through nature and nurture

The nature-nurture debate concerns the relative importance of heredity and environment.

Approach	Main emphasis
Behaviourist	Environmental learning
Social learning theory	Observation within the social environment
Cognitive	Information processing and schemas developed through experience
Biological	Genetics, evolution, structures and neurochemistry
Psychodynamic	Unconscious processes and early experience
Humanistic	Choice, subjective experience and personal development

The biological approach provides the clearest emphasis on nature.

The behaviourist and social learning approaches provide the clearest emphasis on nurture.

However, phenotype demonstrates that genetic and environmental influences may interact. An interactionist approach may therefore provide a more complete explanation than treating nature and nurture as completely separate.

Comparing the approaches through reductionism

Reductionism involves explaining complex behaviour by breaking it down into simpler components.

The specification identifies:

• Biological reductionism

• Environmental or stimulus-response reductionism

Biological reductionism

Complex behaviour is explained through:

• Genetic factors.

• Biological structures.

• Neurochemistry.

This can make behaviour easier to measure and test, but may overlook cognitive, emotional or social influences.

Environmental reductionism

Behaviour is explained through:

• Stimuli and responses.

• Associations.

• Reinforcement and punishment.

This also supports scientific testing, but may simplify behaviour by overlooking interpretation, choice or biology.

Reductionism is therefore not entirely negative.

Strength of reductionism	Limitation of reductionism
Produces focused explanations	May oversimplify behaviour
Variables can be measured	Other levels may be ignored
Predictions can be tested	Context and personal meaning may be lost
Cause and effect may be investigated	Complex interactions may be missed

Comparing the scientific status of the approaches

Psychology is scientific when explanations are based on features such as:

• Objectivity

• Empirical investigation

• Replicability

• Falsifiability

• Theory construction

• Hypothesis testing

The approaches differ in how easily their concepts can be tested.

Approach	Scientific contribution or challenge
Behaviourist	Observable behaviour and controlled conditioning procedures can be measured
Social learning theory	Observable imitation can be measured, although identification and mediational processes are inferred
Cognitive	Models produce testable predictions, but internal processes remain inferred
Biological	Biological variables may be measured objectively, although association does not always establish causation
Psychodynamic	Unconscious processes and personality structures are difficult to observe directly
Humanistic	Personal experience and self-development may be difficult to reduce to simple objective measurements

The use of observable data is a strength, but technology or numerical measurement does not automatically make a conclusion valid.

Researchers must still consider:

• How variables were operationalised.

• Whether procedures were controlled.

• Whether evidence supports causation.

• Whether findings generalise beyond the study.

Observable and unobservable processes

The approaches also differ in what they treat as the main object of psychological study.

Primarily observable focus	Includes processes that cannot be directly observed
Behaviourist approach	Social learning theory
	Cognitive approach
	Biological explanations may include measurable processes, but psychological meaning is inferred
	Psychodynamic approach
	Humanistic Psychology

The behaviourist approach deliberately focuses on observable behaviour.

Other approaches accept that important processes may not be directly visible.

However, they must explain how conclusions about those processes are supported by evidence.

General laws and individual experience

Some approaches aim to identify general principles applying across people.

For example:

• Conditioning principles explain how associations and consequences affect behaviour.

• Cognitive models represent common mental processes.

• Biological explanations investigate general physical mechanisms.

Humanistic Psychology places greater emphasis on personal experience and individual goals.

This creates a connection with the distinction between:

• Nomothetic investigation, which aims to develop general laws.

• Idiographic investigation, which focuses on individuals and unique experience.

An approach may use both types of evidence, but its assumptions may make one form of explanation more prominent.

Comparing explanations of the same behaviour

Suppose a student avoids speaking during class discussions.

Each approach could offer a different explanation.

Approach	Possible explanation
Behaviourist	Avoidance may have been reinforced because remaining silent reduced an unpleasant experience
Social learning theory	The student may have observed another person being criticised and learned vicariously
Cognitive	A schema or interpretation may lead the student to expect a negative response
Biological	Biological factors may contribute to the student’s emotional or behavioural response
Psychodynamic	Unconscious conflict or earlier experiences may influence the reaction
Humanistic	Conditions of worth or incongruence may restrict confident self-expression

These explanations need not be completely incompatible.

A student’s behaviour could be influenced by:

• Previous learning.

• Observation of other people.

• Expectations.

• Biological processes.

• Earlier psychological experience.

• Personal choices and goals.

This suggests that different approaches may explain different aspects of the same behaviour.

Applying comparisons to unfamiliar contexts

When asked to compare approaches in a scenario:

1. Identify what each approach would treat as the cause.

2. Apply the relevant terminology to the person’s behaviour.

3. State a clear similarity or difference.

4. Explain why the approaches reach different conclusions.

5. Avoid writing two separate descriptions without connecting them.

For example:

The behaviourist approach would explain repeated avoidance through negative reinforcement because leaving the situation removes anxiety. In contrast, the cognitive approach would focus on the person’s interpretation of the situation, such as a schema that leads them to expect danger. Both explain the same behaviour, but one emphasises environmental consequences while the other emphasises internal information processing.

The comparison words are essential:

• Whereas

• In contrast

• Similarly

• Both

• Unlike

• However

Writing a direct comparison

An effective comparison contains four parts:

1. Name the comparison point.

2. Explain the first approach.

3. Explain the second approach.

4. State the significance of the similarity or difference.

For example:

Both the behaviourist approach and social learning theory explain behaviour through environmental experience. However, behaviourism focuses on direct associations and consequences, whereas social learning theory explains how behaviour can be learned by observing a model. Social learning theory also includes mediational processes, giving the learner a more active role.

This is stronger than writing one paragraph on behaviourism followed by an unrelated paragraph on social learning theory.

Evaluating comparisons

A comparison can also be used to evaluate an approach.

For example:

The cognitive approach may provide a more complete explanation than strict behaviourism because it recognises that people interpret environmental information. Two people may experience the same event but respond differently because their schemas differ. However, cognitive processes cannot be observed directly, so psychologists must infer them from behaviour.

This evaluation:

• Identifies what the cognitive approach adds.

• Explains why it may improve the explanation.

• Recognises a limitation of that approach.

Overall comparison of the approaches

No single approach focuses equally on every possible influence.

Approach	Particular contribution
Behaviourist	Clear explanation of learning through association and consequences
Social learning theory	Explains indirect learning through models and observed outcomes
Cognitive	Explains active information processing
Biological	Explains inherited and physical contributions
Psychodynamic	Highlights unconscious processes and early experience
Humanistic	Emphasises choice, personal meaning and growth

The main limitation of relying on only one approach is that complex behaviour may involve several interacting influences.

The approaches are therefore useful not only because they disagree, but because they ask different questions about behaviour.

A balanced conclusion is that each approach contributes a particular level of explanation. Comparisons should identify both what an approach explains effectively and what it may overlook.

Key Words 🔑

Key word	Student-friendly definition	How it may be used in an exam
Approach	A set of assumptions about the causes of behaviour and how psychology should investigate them.	Introduce a comparison between psychological perspectives.
Behaviourist approach	An approach explaining behaviour through conditioning and environmental learning.	Compare learning explanations with cognitive or biological accounts.
Social learning theory	An explanation of behaviour learned through observation, identification and vicarious reinforcement.	Compare direct and observational learning.
Cognitive approach	An approach studying internal mental processes, schemas, models and inference.	Compare information processing with observable learning.
Biological approach	An approach explaining behaviour through genetic, evolutionary, structural and neurochemical processes.	Compare nature-based explanations with environmental explanations.
Psychodynamic approach	An approach explaining behaviour through unconscious processes, personality conflict and early experience.	Compare unconscious causes with conscious processing or free will.
Humanistic Psychology	An approach emphasising free will, self-actualisation, congruence and conditions of worth.	Compare free will with deterministic explanations.
Determinism	The view that behaviour is caused by factors that may be outside conscious control.	Compare biological, environmental and psychic causes.
Free will	The view that individuals can make choices about their behaviour.	Explain a central difference between humanistic and deterministic approaches.
Environmental determinism	The view that behaviour is caused by environmental experience.	Evaluate the behaviourist approach.
Biological determinism	The view that behaviour is caused by biological processes.	Evaluate the biological approach.
Psychic determinism	The view that behaviour is caused by psychological processes, including unconscious influences.	Evaluate the psychodynamic approach.
Nature	Hereditary and biological influences on behaviour.	Compare the biological approach with learning approaches.
Nurture	Environmental and experiential influences on behaviour.	Compare behaviourism and social learning theory with biological explanations.
Interactionist approach	The view that heredity and environment work together.	Evaluate one-sided nature or nurture explanations.
Reductionism	Explaining complex behaviour by breaking it into simpler components.	Evaluate biological or behaviourist explanations.
Biological reductionism	Explaining behaviour through biological components such as genes or neurochemistry.	Identify a limitation or scientific strength of the biological approach.
Environmental reductionism	Explaining behaviour through stimulus-response connections and learning.	Evaluate conditioning explanations.
Objectivity	Using evidence that is not based solely on personal opinions.	Compare the scientific status of approaches.
Empirical method	Developing knowledge through observation and measurement.	Explain how an approach produces scientific evidence.
Falsifiability	The principle that evidence must be capable of showing an explanation is wrong.	Evaluate whether an explanation can be tested.
Idiographic approach	An approach focused on understanding individuals and unique experience.	Compare individual-focused and general explanations.
Nomothetic approach	An approach aiming to establish general principles or laws.	Compare general models with individual experience.

Common Mistakes ⚠️

Mistake: Writing separate descriptions without making a comparison.

Why this is incorrect:A comparison requires an explicit similarity or difference between approaches.

How to improve:Use connecting language such as “both”, “whereas”, “unlike” or “in contrast”.

Mistake: Claiming that social learning theory and operant conditioning are identical.

Why this is incorrect:Operant conditioning focuses on direct consequences. Social learning theory includes observation, vicarious reinforcement and mediational processes.

How to improve:Identify who receives the consequence and whether a model is involved.

Mistake: Saying the cognitive approach directly observes thoughts.

Why this is incorrect:Internal mental processes cannot be observed directly. They are inferred from behaviour.

How to improve:Explain how models, tasks and observable responses are used.

Mistake: Describing the biological approach as entirely separate from environmental influence.

Why this is incorrect:Phenotype develops through the interaction between genotype and environment.

How to improve:Distinguish biological influence from complete biological determination.

Mistake: Saying all approaches are equally deterministic.

Why this is incorrect:They differ in the type and degree of causation emphasised. Humanistic Psychology explicitly emphasises free will.

How to improve:Identify environmental, biological or psychic determinism where appropriate.

Mistake: Treating reductionism as entirely negative.

Why this is incorrect:Simplifying behaviour can create measurable and testable explanations.

How to improve:Balance scientific precision against the risk of overlooking other influences.

Mistake: Saying an approach is scientific only because it uses an experiment or technology.

Why this is incorrect:Scientific quality also depends on objectivity, operationalisation, replicability, falsifiability and valid conclusions.

How to improve:Explain the specific scientific feature and why it matters.

Mistake: Comparing approaches using evaluation points that do not relate to their assumptions.

Why this is incorrect:A comparison must show how the approaches differ in explaining or investigating behaviour.

How to improve:Link each evaluation point to a particular assumption, such as learning, biology, cognition, unconscious conflict or free will.

Mistake: Claiming that evidence for one approach automatically disproves all others.

Why this is incorrect:Different approaches may explain behaviour at different levels.

How to improve:Consider whether the explanations could be complementary rather than completely incompatible.

Mistake: Using vague statements such as “the cognitive approach is better”.

Why this is incorrect:The statement does not identify the comparison criterion.

How to improve:State what the approach adds, such as internal processing, and explain why that improves or limits the explanation.

Exam-Style Questions ✍️

Question 1

Which one of the following approaches places the greatest emphasis on free will?

A. Behaviourist approach

B. Biological approach

C. Psychodynamic approach

D. Humanistic Psychology

[1 mark]

Question 2

Identify one similarity between the behaviourist approach and social learning theory.

[2 marks]

Question 3

Explain one difference between operant conditioning and social learning theory.

[3 marks]

Question 4

Compare the cognitive and psychodynamic approaches in relation to processes that cannot be directly observed.

[4 marks]

Question 5

Explain one similarity and one difference between the biological and behaviourist approaches.

[6 marks]

Question 6

A student avoids contributing to class discussions.

A psychologist gives the following explanation:

The student remains silent because previous silence has allowed them to escape anxiety. This relief has strengthened the avoidance behaviour.

Another psychologist suggests that the student expects classmates to judge every mistake negatively.

Compare the two approaches used to explain the student’s behaviour.

[6 marks]

Question 7

A group of students classify six statements according to the psychological approach they represent.

Statement	Approach selected by the students
Behaviour is influenced by unconscious conflict	Psychodynamic
Behaviour develops through associations and consequences	Behaviourist
Behaviour is influenced by information processing	Cognitive
Behaviour is entirely a conscious choice	Biological
Behaviour may be learned by observing a model	Social learning theory
Behaviour may reflect movement towards fulfilment of potential	Humanistic

a) Identify the statement that has been classified incorrectly.

[1 mark]

b) Name the correct approach.

[1 mark]

c) Explain why the corrected classification is appropriate.

[2 marks]

Question 8

Explain how the biological and humanistic approaches differ in their positions on free will and determinism.

[4 marks]

Question 9

Discuss similarities and differences between any two approaches in psychology.

[8 marks]

Question 10

Compare approaches in psychology.

In your answer, refer to their assumptions, explanations of behaviour and scientific investigation.

[16 marks]