Research design | AQA A-Level Sociology

For Specification 7192

AQA A-Level Sociology | Free Revision Notes

Estimated study time: 45 minutes

exam questions by topic 👇

Research design is about the decisions sociologists make when planning and carrying out research. For AQA A-Level Sociology, students must examine research design alongside quantitative and qualitative methods, sources of data and the theoretical, practical and ethical considerations that influence the choice of topic, choice of method and conduct of research.  This Research design A-Level Sociology revision page will help you understand how these decisions connect and why a suitable design is essential for producing useful sociological evidence.

Learning Objectives 🎯

By the end of this revision page, you should be able to:

• Define research design in the context of sociological research.

• Explain why sociologists need to plan how research will be conducted.

• Identify decisions involving the research topic, methods and sources of data.

• Explain how the kind of data required can influence research design.

• Examine theoretical, practical and ethical considerations affecting research design.

• Apply research-design decisions to unfamiliar sociological investigations.

These objectives follow Lesson 2 of the Research Methods sequence in the supplied AQA A-Level Sociology plan.

Revision Notes 📚

Research design A-Level Sociology revision: what does AQA require?

AQA explicitly includes research design within Theory and Methods. The specification also requires students to examine:

• quantitative and qualitative methods

• questionnaires

• interviews

• participant and non-participant observation

• experiments

• documents

• official statistics

• primary and secondary data

• quantitative and qualitative data

• theoretical, practical and ethical considerations influencing:

  • choice of topic

  • choice of method or methods

  • the conduct of research.

This means that research design should not be treated as a completely separate topic. It brings together decisions that you will explore in much more detail throughout the Research Methods unit.

Your understanding of quantitative and qualitative approaches [Quantitative and qualitative research] is particularly important because sociologists need to consider what kind of evidence their investigation is intended to produce.

What is research design?

Research design is the planning of how sociological research will be carried out.

A sociologist does not simply choose a topic and immediately start collecting information. Decisions need to be made about:

• what will be investigated

• what kind of information is required

• which research method or methods will be used

• which sources of data will be used

• how theoretical considerations may affect the research

• what practical issues may influence what can be done

• what ethical issues need to be considered

• how the research will actually be conducted.

AQA also states that students should consider the design of the research used to obtain data, including its strengths and limitations as an integral part of studying Sociology.

Research design is therefore important because the decisions made about how research is conducted affect the kind of sociological evidence that can be produced.

Research design as a set of connected decisions

It is useful to think of research design as a series of connected choices, rather than one isolated decision.

For revision purposes, you can organise those decisions like this:

1. Choice of topic

2. Deciding what type of data is required

3. Choosing a method or methods

4. Considering possible sources of data

5. Considering theoretical issues

6. Considering practical issues

7. Considering ethical issues

8. Conducting the research

These stages are a useful way of organising the specification content rather than a compulsory sequence prescribed by AQA.

The key idea is that changing one decision may affect several others.

Decision 1: Choosing the research topic

AQA requires students to understand considerations influencing the choice of topic.

The topic identifies what aspect of social life the sociologist wants to investigate.

For example, a sociologist might decide to investigate pupils' experiences of education. The design would then need to consider what specifically the researcher wants to discover and how appropriate evidence could be obtained.

The choice of topic cannot be considered separately from the rest of the design because different topics may create different:

• theoretical considerations

• practical considerations

• ethical considerations.

These are explored more fully in theoretical considerations [Theoretical considerations in sociological research], practical considerations [Practical considerations in sociological research] and ethical considerations [Ethical considerations in sociological research].

Decision 2: Deciding what kind of data are needed

AQA requires students to distinguish between:

• quantitative data

• qualitative data.

The type of evidence a researcher wants can therefore influence the research design.

If the researcher wants quantitative data

The investigation needs to produce information that can be expressed numerically.

This could make it possible to:

• count responses

• compare numerical patterns

• identify numerical differences between groups.

If the researcher wants qualitative data

The investigation needs to produce detailed, non-numerical information.

This may allow the sociologist to explore:

• experiences

• meanings

• interpretations

• detailed accounts of social life.

📌 Key point: The desired type of data and the research method need to fit together as part of the overall design.

You should therefore be able to link this lesson back to quantitative and qualitative research [Quantitative and qualitative research].

Decision 3: Choosing a research method

AQA requires knowledge of several possible sources and methods of sociological research:

• questionnaires

• interviews

• participant observation

• non-participant observation

• experiments

• documents

• official statistics.

A research design therefore includes deciding which method or methods are appropriate for the investigation.

There is no single research method that AQA identifies as suitable for every sociological investigation.

Instead, the method should be considered in relation to:

• the research topic

• the evidence being sought

• theoretical considerations

• practical considerations

• ethical considerations.

For example, as you study questionnaires [Questionnaires] and interviews [Interviews], you will examine their different practical, ethical and theoretical strengths and limitations.

Choosing more than one method

The specification refers to the choice of method(s), so a sociological research design may involve one or more methods.

The important examination skill is not simply naming methods. You need to be able to explain why the chosen method or methods fit the particular investigation.

Decision 4: Choosing sources of data

Research design also involves thinking about where the evidence will come from.

AQA distinguishes between primary data and secondary data.

Primary data

Primary data are data obtained first-hand by the sociologist for their research.

Secondary data

Secondary data already exist and are used by the sociologist as part of their investigation.

The distinction between primary and secondary concerns the source of the evidence.

This is different from the distinction between quantitative and qualitative data, which concerns the form the evidence takes.

You will examine this distinction fully in primary and secondary data [Primary and secondary data].

Two different questions

When analysing a research design, ask:

Where did the data come from?This helps distinguish primary from secondary data.

Then ask:

What form do the data take?This helps distinguish quantitative from qualitative data.

These classifications should not be confused.

Decision 5: Theoretical considerations

AQA specifically requires students to consider theoretical considerations affecting the choice of topic, methods and conduct of research.

The specification also requires the study of:

• positivism

• interpretivism

• the nature of social facts

• the relationship between theory and methods.

This means that research design is connected to broader questions about what sociologists believe research should investigate and how sociological knowledge should be produced.

For this lesson, the essential point is that theoretical considerations can influence methodological choices.

You will explore the detail of these debates later in positivism and social facts [Positivism and social facts] and interpretivism and sociological methods [Interpretivism and sociological methods].

💡 Revision tip: At this stage, concentrate on recognising theoretical considerations as one part of research design. Avoid treating research methods as choices made completely independently of sociological theory.

Decision 6: Practical considerations

Research also takes place under practical conditions.

AQA specifically states that practical considerations can influence:

• choice of topic

• choice of method or methods

• conduct of research.

This means a design must be workable in practice as well as sociologically useful.

The specification itself does not provide a separate detailed list of practical factors at this point, so they should not be expanded beyond the content given in the supplied materials here.

The main principle to remember is:

A method may appear suitable for a research question, but practical considerations may affect whether and how it can actually be used.

These issues are developed in practical considerations in sociological research [Practical considerations in sociological research].

Decision 7: Ethical considerations

Sociological research involves people and social life, so ethical considerations can influence research design.

AQA requires students to understand how ethical considerations influence:

• choice of topic

• choice of method or methods

• conduct of research.

This means ethics should be considered during the design of a study rather than treated as something that only matters after research has taken place.

At this point in the course, you should understand the general relationship:

ethical consideration → research decision → possible change to how research is conducted

Specific ethical considerations are developed in ethical considerations in sociological research [Ethical considerations in sociological research].

Decision 8: The conduct of research

Research design is not only concerned with choosing a method.

AQA explicitly refers to considerations affecting the conduct of research.

This means sociologists need to consider how their chosen design works when the research is actually carried out.

Theoretical, practical and ethical considerations may all affect this.

For example, a researcher may begin with a particular method in mind but also needs to consider whether that method remains appropriate for:

• the topic

• the evidence required

• the circumstances in which the research takes place.

The design and conduct of research are therefore closely connected.

Bringing the decisions together

A useful way to analyse a sociological research design is to ask four broad questions:

Question	What you should think about
What is being investigated?	Choice of topic
What evidence is needed?	Quantitative or qualitative data, primary or secondary data
How will evidence be obtained?	Choice of research method or methods
What might affect these decisions?	Theoretical, practical and ethical considerations

This helps prevent research methods from becoming a list of disconnected facts.

Example research design

Imagine a sociologist wants to investigate pupils' experiences of school.

This is an illustrative scenario rather than evidence from an actual sociological study.

The researcher would need to make several connected design decisions.

1. Topic

The researcher has chosen pupils' experiences of education as the broad topic.

2. Type of data

The researcher needs to decide whether the investigation should produce:

• quantitative evidence about numerical patterns

• qualitative evidence about pupils' detailed experiences

• or evidence involving both forms.

3. Method

The sociologist then needs to consider which of the methods required by the specification could provide useful evidence.

For example, they might consider:

• questionnaires

• interviews

• participant or non-participant observation.

This does not mean these methods are equally suitable. Their strengths and limitations need to be considered.

4. Factors affecting the design

The sociologist must then consider:

• theoretical factors

• practical factors

• ethical factors.

A successful research design connects these decisions rather than choosing each one in isolation.

Research design is not simply "choosing a method"

One of the most important distinctions in this lesson is between research design and research method.

A research method is one way of obtaining or using sociological evidence.

A research design is broader. It includes the decisions surrounding what is being studied, what evidence is needed, the method or methods used and the factors affecting how the research is conducted.

For example:

"The researcher will use interviews."

identifies a method.

However:

"The researcher needs detailed qualitative evidence about pupils' experiences, so interviews are being considered alongside practical, theoretical and ethical issues."

shows thinking about the research design.

That distinction is very useful in extended examination answers.

Why is research design important?

Research design is important because sociologists need to make coherent decisions about how evidence will be obtained.

A poorly matched design could mean that the evidence produced does not answer what the researcher actually wanted to investigate.

For example, if the main aim is to understand people's detailed interpretations of an experience, simply collecting numerical totals may provide only part of the information needed.

Similarly, if the aim is to establish the numerical distribution of responses, detailed accounts alone may not directly provide the required numerical evidence.

The key issue is appropriateness:

Does the design enable the sociologist to obtain evidence that addresses the purpose of the investigation?

Strengths and limitations of research designs

AQA states that the design of research used to obtain sociological data, including its strengths and limitations, should be an integral part of the course.

This means evaluation should not simply ask:

"Is this method good or bad?"

Instead, ask:

"How suitable is this design for this particular research purpose?"

A particular choice may have both advantages and disadvantages.

For example, a design seeking quantitative data may be strong for showing numerical patterns but offer less detailed information about individual meanings.

A design seeking qualitative data may provide detailed information about experiences but be less directly suited to measuring numerical patterns.

The best evaluation therefore keeps referring to the research aim and context.

Research design and the rest of Theory and Methods

Research design provides a framework for almost everything that follows in this part of the course.

You will examine individual methods such as:

• questionnaires [Questionnaires]

• interviews [Interviews]

• participant and non-participant observation [Participant and non-participant observation]

• experiments

• documents

• official statistics.

Later, the course brings these decisions back into wider sociological theory through the relationship between theory and methods [The relationship between theory and methods].

The supplied lesson plan deliberately places Research design immediately after Quantitative and qualitative research and before the detailed study of individual methods.  This makes it a useful framework for understanding why sociologists may choose different ways of investigating social life.

Applying research design in an examination 📝

The AQA assessment objectives require students to:

• demonstrate knowledge and understanding of sociological research methods

• apply research methods to issues

• analyse and evaluate research methods

• present arguments, make judgements and draw conclusions.

For a research-design question, you could therefore be asked to do more than list possible methods.

A strong approach is to:

1. identify what the researcher wants to investigate

2. identify the kind of evidence that would be useful

3. consider an appropriate method or source

4. explain theoretical, practical or ethical factors affecting that choice

5. consider a limitation

6. make a reasoned judgement about the suitability of the design.

📌 Exam tip: Always apply your point to the investigation in the question. Writing that "ethical considerations affect research" is much weaker than explaining how an ethical consideration affects the design of the particular study described.

Key Words 🔑

Key word	Student-friendly definition	How it may be used in an exam
Research design	The planning of how sociological research will be carried out.	Explain or evaluate decisions involved in a sociological investigation.
Research method	An approach used to obtain or use sociological evidence.	Identify an appropriate method and explain why it suits a research purpose.
Quantitative data	Data expressed numerically.	Explain whether a design is suitable for measuring or comparing numerical patterns.
Qualitative data	Detailed, non-numerical data.	Explain whether a design is suitable for investigating meanings or experiences.
Primary data	Data obtained first-hand by the researcher for the research.	Distinguish first-hand evidence from existing secondary evidence.
Secondary data	Data that already exist and are used by the researcher.	Explain the source of evidence used in a design.
Theoretical considerations	Sociological theoretical issues that may influence research choices and conduct.	Explain why theoretical ideas may influence choice of method.
Practical considerations	Practical issues that may affect research choices and conduct.	Apply practical factors when assessing whether a design is workable.
Ethical considerations	Ethical issues that may affect the topic, method or conduct of research.	Explain how ethical concerns may influence a research design.

Common Mistakes ⚠️

Mistake: Treating research design as another research method

Why this is incorrect: Research design is broader than an individual method. It involves planning the investigation and making connected decisions about topic, data, methods and the factors affecting the research.

How to improve: Remember:

Method = how evidence is obtained or used.

Research design = the wider plan for the research.

Mistake: Choosing a method before considering what information is needed

Why this is incorrect: Different research purposes may require different forms of evidence.

How to improve: Start by asking:

What does the sociologist actually want to find out?

Then consider whether quantitative or qualitative evidence would help answer that question.

Mistake: Confusing primary and quantitative data

Why this is incorrect:

These describe different features of data.

• primary/secondary concerns where the data come from

• quantitative/qualitative concerns what form the data take.

How to improve: Classify the source and form of the data separately.

Mistake: Listing methods without justifying the choice

Why this is incorrect: Knowing that questionnaires, interviews and observations exist does not show that you understand research design.

How to improve: Link the method directly to the research purpose:

This method may be useful because...

Then explain what evidence it could provide for that particular investigation.

Mistake: Treating theoretical, practical and ethical considerations as unrelated lists

Why this is incorrect: AQA specifically requires students to understand how these considerations influence the choice of topic, choice of methods and conduct of research.

How to improve: Always explain the consequence:

This factor matters because it may affect the researcher's decision to...

Mistake: Assuming there is always one perfect research design

Why this is incorrect: Different designs have different strengths and limitations, depending on the purpose of the investigation.

How to improve: Compare what different choices would allow the researcher to discover and reach a justified judgement about their suitability.

Exam-Style Questions ✍️

Question 1

Define research design. (2 marks)

Question 2

Identify two types of data that a sociologist might consider when designing research. (2 marks)

Question 3

Explain two decisions a sociologist may make when designing a research project. (4 marks)

Question 4

A sociologist wants to investigate pupils' experiences of school.

The researcher is deciding whether to collect numerical information about pupils' experiences or detailed accounts in pupils' own words.

Explain how the kind of data required could affect the research design. (4 marks)

Question 5

A researcher is designing a study of how young people experience education.

Explain one way in which practical considerations and one way in which ethical considerations could influence the research design. (6 marks)

Question 6

Explain the difference between choosing a research method and developing a research design. (4 marks)

Question 7

A sociologist plans to investigate an aspect of contemporary UK society.

Explain why theoretical, practical and ethical considerations should be taken into account when designing the research. (6 marks)

Question 8

Evaluate the importance of research design in sociological research. (10 marks)

Answers and mark scheme

Question 1: Research design (2 marks)

Award credit for an answer that recognises:

• research design involves the planning of sociological research (1)

• it concerns decisions about how the investigation will be carried out (1).

Example answer:

Research design is the planning of a sociological investigation, including decisions about how the research will be carried out.

Question 2: Types of data (2 marks)

Award one mark for each:

• quantitative data

• qualitative data.

Question 3: Decisions in research design (4 marks)

Award up to two marks for each explained decision.

Possible answers include:

• choice of research topic

• deciding whether quantitative or qualitative data are required

• choosing a method or methods

• deciding whether primary or secondary evidence will be used

• considering theoretical factors

• considering practical factors

• considering ethical factors

• decisions affecting the conduct of research.

Example answer:

One decision is which method to use because the sociologist needs a method capable of producing evidence relevant to the research topic. Another is whether quantitative or qualitative data are required because this affects the type of evidence the investigation needs to produce.

Question 4: Pupils' experiences (4 marks)

A good answer should apply the distinction between quantitative and qualitative data directly to the scenario.

Possible content:

• numerical information would produce quantitative data

• this may enable the researcher to identify or compare numerical patterns

• detailed accounts would produce qualitative data

• these could provide more information about pupils' meanings or experiences

• the evidence required therefore affects which method or methods would be appropriate.

Example answer:

If the sociologist wants to compare numerical patterns in pupils' experiences, the design needs to produce quantitative data. However, if the researcher wants detailed accounts of what pupils think their experiences mean, qualitative data would be more suitable. The type of evidence required therefore affects the method selected as part of the research design.

Question 5: Practical and ethical considerations (6 marks)

Award credit for:

• identifying a practical consideration as influencing the design

• explaining how it may affect a research decision

• applying it to the study

and:

• identifying an ethical consideration

• explaining how it may affect a research decision

• applying it to the study.

Because the supplied specification does not provide a detailed list of individual practical or ethical issues at this stage, credit should focus on accurate explanation of how those categories of consideration influence the design rather than requiring named factors beyond the source material.

Example answer:

Practical considerations could affect whether the researcher's preferred way of investigating young people's experiences can actually be carried out, so they may influence the method used or how the research is conducted. Ethical considerations may also affect how the study is organised because the researcher must consider ethical issues when deciding both the method and how the investigation will be carried out.

Question 6: Method and design (4 marks)

Award credit for explaining that:

• a research method is an approach used to obtain or use sociological evidence

• research design is the wider plan for the investigation

• the design can include decisions about data, methods and the conduct of research

• a method is therefore one part of the overall design.

Example answer:

Choosing a research method means deciding on an approach for obtaining or using evidence, such as an interview or questionnaire. Research design is broader because it includes the overall planning of the investigation, including the evidence required, the method and the theoretical, practical and ethical considerations affecting the research.

Question 7: Factors affecting design (6 marks)

A developed response should explain the relevance of all three categories.

Theoretical considerations may influence the sociologist's methodological choices.

Practical considerations may affect whether and how the proposed research can be carried out.

Ethical considerations may affect the choice of topic, method and conduct of the research.

Higher-quality responses should show that these considerations are connected to research decisions, rather than simply listing them.

Question 8: Importance of research design (10 marks)

A strong response should demonstrate accurate knowledge and develop an evaluation.

Relevant content may include:

• research design involves planning how research will be carried out

• the sociologist needs to consider the purpose and topic of the investigation

• the researcher must consider whether quantitative or qualitative evidence is required

• research design includes the choice of method or methods

• primary and secondary sources may need to be considered

• theoretical considerations may influence methodological choices

• practical considerations may affect what can be carried out

• ethical considerations may influence both methods and conduct

• research designs have strengths and limitations

• the usefulness of a design depends on whether it enables the sociologist to obtain appropriate evidence for the investigation.

Example concluding judgement:

Research design is important because the different decisions involved in sociological research are connected. A method cannot be judged as suitable without considering the topic, the type of evidence required and the theoretical, practical and ethical factors affecting the study. A well-matched design therefore helps the sociologist obtain evidence that is appropriate to the purpose of the investigation.