Social learning theory | AQA A-Level Psychology Revision
Updated: Sep 9
For 7182 specification, first teach in September 2025
AQA A-Level Psychology | Free Revision Notes
Estimated study time: 45 minutes
These Social learning theory A-Level Psychology revision notes explain how behaviour can be learned by observing other people. You will explore imitation, identification, vicarious reinforcement and the mediational processes that influence whether observed behaviour is copied. Social learning theory develops the learning principles introduced in learning through consequences, but recognises that direct reinforcement is not always necessary. Understanding these ideas will also prepare you for Bandura’s investigation of observational learning.
Learning Objectives 🎯
By the end of this revision page, you should be able to:
Define social learning theory.
Explain imitation and modelling.
Explain identification and its influence on imitation.
Explain how vicarious reinforcement affects behaviour.
Describe the role of mediational processes in observational learning.
Apply social learning theory to unfamiliar situations.
Revision Notes đź“š
Social learning theory A-Level Psychology revision overview
Social learning theory explains how behaviour may be learned by observing other people and the consequences they receive.
The person whose behaviour is observed is called a model. The person watching the model is the observer.
Social learning theory proposes that an observer may:
Watch a model behaving.
Observe what happens to the model.
Think about the behaviour and its consequences.
Decide whether to reproduce the behaviour.
Imitate the behaviour in a suitable situation.
The AQA specification requires knowledge of imitation, identification, vicarious reinforcement, mediational processes and Bandura’s research as part of the learning approaches.
Learning by observing others
Social learning theory proposes that learning does not always require a person to perform a behaviour and experience its consequences directly.
A person may instead learn by watching:
Parents and carers.
Friends and classmates.
Teachers.
Other people in their social environment.
People shown through media.
The observer can see:
What the model does.
Whether the behaviour is rewarded.
Whether the behaviour produces an unwanted consequence.
Whether the behaviour appears successful.
This information can influence the observer’s later behaviour.
For example, a student may watch another student give a detailed answer and receive praise from a teacher. The observer may later use a similar answer structure because they have seen that the behaviour produced a desirable consequence.
What is a model?
A model is a person whose behaviour is observed and may be imitated.
The model demonstrates a behaviour that the observer can potentially learn.
The behaviour shown by the model might include:
A particular action.
A way of completing a task.
A social response.
A pattern of communication.
An aggressive or helpful behaviour.
The process of demonstrating behaviour is known as modelling.
Modelling does not guarantee imitation. The observer must notice the behaviour, remember it and be able and motivated to reproduce it.
What is imitation?
Imitation means copying the behaviour of a model.
For example:
A child watches an adult greet someone politely and uses the same greeting later.
A student watches a classmate organise an essay and copies the structure.
A player observes a teammate use a particular technique and reproduces it during practice.
Imitation is the behavioural outcome that may follow observation.
However, observing behaviour and copying behaviour are not the same thing. An observer could learn a behaviour but choose not to perform it immediately.
This distinction is important because social learning theory includes mediational processes between observation and imitation.
Observation does not automatically lead to imitation
A person may observe a behaviour without copying it.
This could happen because the observer:
Did not pay sufficient attention.
Cannot remember the behaviour.
Does not have the ability to reproduce it.
Is not motivated to perform it.
Does not identify with the model.
Observed consequences that made imitation less attractive.
Social learning theory therefore does not describe people as automatically copying everything they see.
Instead, internal processes influence whether observed behaviour is eventually reproduced.
What is identification?
Identification occurs when an observer relates to a model and sees the model as someone they want to be like.
Identification makes imitation more likely because the model has personal significance for the observer.
An observer might think:
“That person is like me.”
“I would like to behave like that person.”
“That person represents the kind of person I want to become.”
Identification is therefore more than simply noticing another person.
The observer may see the model’s behaviour as relevant to their own identity, goals or social position.
Imitation and identification
Imitation and identification are closely related but have different meanings.
Imitation | Identification |
Copying an observed behaviour | Relating to a model or wanting to be like them |
Describes what the observer does | Helps explain why a particular model influences the observer |
May involve one specific behaviour | May involve a broader connection with the model |
Is the reproduction of behaviour | Can increase the likelihood of reproduction |
For example, a student might identify with an older pupil whom they admire. If the older pupil receives praise for helping others, the student may imitate the helpful behaviour.
The copying is imitation. The observer’s sense of connection with the older pupil is identification.
Identification is selective
People do not identify equally with every person they observe.
A model may have a stronger influence when the observer sees that model as personally relevant.
This means two people could observe the same model but respond differently:
One observer may identify with the model and imitate the behaviour.
Another may observe the behaviour but feel little connection with the model.
A third may remember the behaviour but decide not to reproduce it.
Identification helps explain why exposure to the same behaviour does not always produce the same response in every observer.
What is vicarious reinforcement?
Vicarious reinforcement occurs when an observer sees a model being rewarded for a behaviour and becomes more likely to imitate it.
The observer does not have to receive the reward directly.
The sequence is:
Model performs behaviour → model receives reward → observer becomes more likely to imitate
The word vicarious means experienced indirectly through another person.
For example:
A student sees a classmate contribute an answer.
The teacher praises the classmate.
The observer notices the praise.
The observer becomes more likely to contribute an answer in the future.
The praise was given to the model, not the observer. Nevertheless, it influences the observer’s behaviour.
Direct and vicarious reinforcement
Social learning theory builds on the idea of reinforcement but distinguishes direct experience from observed experience.
Direct reinforcement | Vicarious reinforcement |
The person performs a behaviour | The person observes a model behaving |
The person receives the consequence | The model receives the consequence |
The consequence affects the person’s future behaviour | Observing the consequence affects the observer’s future behaviour |
Central to operant conditioning | Central to social learning theory |
For example:
Direct reinforcement:Â A student receives praise after completing homework and becomes more likely to complete it again.
Vicarious reinforcement:Â A student sees someone else receive praise for completing homework and becomes more likely to complete their own.
The crucial difference is who receives the consequence.
You can review the principles of direct reinforcement through positive and negative reinforcement.
Observing unwanted consequences
An observer may also see that a model’s behaviour produces an unwanted consequence.
This can make imitation less likely.
For example, a student may watch another pupil break a rule and receive a consequence. The observer may decide not to copy the behaviour.
The observer has learned something from the model’s experience without having to perform the behaviour personally.
Social learning theory therefore helps explain why both rewarded and discouraged behaviours can be learned through observation.
What are mediational processes?
Mediational processes are internal mental processes that occur between observing a behaviour and producing a response.
They are called mediational because they mediate, or come between:
Observation → mental processing → imitation
These processes explain why a person does not automatically reproduce every behaviour they observe.
The four mediational processes are:
Attention
Retention
Motor reproduction
Motivation
Attention
Attention means noticing and focusing on the model’s behaviour.
The observer must pay sufficient attention to what the model is doing before the behaviour can be learned.
An observer who is distracted may not process:
The sequence of actions.
The details of the behaviour.
The situation in which it occurs.
The consequences received by the model.
For example, a student cannot learn a demonstrated technique if they do not watch the demonstration carefully.
Attention is therefore the first requirement for observational learning.
Retention
Retention means remembering the observed behaviour.
The observer must retain a mental representation of what the model did so the behaviour can be reproduced later.
The behaviour does not need to be imitated immediately. It may be stored and performed in a future situation.
For example, a student may observe a teacher demonstrate how to structure an answer and reproduce that structure during a later assessment.
This shows why learning and performance are not necessarily simultaneous.
An observer may have learned the behaviour through observation even if it is not displayed straight away.
Motor reproduction
Motor reproduction means having the ability to perform the observed behaviour.
The observer may pay attention to a model and remember the behaviour but still be unable to reproduce it.
The behaviour may require:
Physical ability.
Practice.
Coordination.
An appropriate opportunity.
The necessary skills or resources.
For example, a beginner may observe an experienced player perform a difficult movement and remember it accurately, but may not yet have the ability to reproduce it.
Motor reproduction therefore affects whether learning can be shown through behaviour.
Motivation
Motivation means having a reason or incentive to reproduce the behaviour.
An observer may know how to perform a behaviour but choose not to imitate it.
Motivation can be influenced by:
The consequences observed for the model.
Whether the observer expects a desirable outcome.
Whether the behaviour appears worthwhile.
Whether the observer identifies with the model.
Vicarious reinforcement is particularly important here. Seeing a model rewarded can increase the observer’s motivation to imitate.
For example, a student may remember how another pupil earned praise through a detailed explanation. The expectation of similar praise may motivate the observer to use the same approach.
The mediational process sequence
The mediational processes can be organised into a sequence:
Mediational process | Question for the observer |
Attention | Did I notice the behaviour? |
Retention | Can I remember what the model did? |
Motor reproduction | Am I able to perform the behaviour? |
Motivation | Do I have a reason to imitate it? |
A useful summary is:
Notice it → remember it → be able to do it → want to do it
All four processes help determine whether observed behaviour is reproduced.
How the parts of social learning theory work together
The main concepts should not be treated as unrelated definitions. They form one explanation of behaviour.
Consider the following example:
Priya watches an older student produce a clearly organised presentation. The older student receives praise from the teacher. Priya admires the student and later uses a similar presentation structure.
The explanation is:
The older student is the model.
Priya observes the model’s presentation.
Priya identifies with the older student because she admires them.
Priya pays attention to the presentation structure.
She retains the structure in memory.
She has the ability to reproduce it, showing motor reproduction.
The praise given to the model provides vicarious reinforcement.
This increases Priya’s motivation to copy the behaviour.
Priya imitates the presentation structure.
A strong examination answer connects these stages rather than mentioning each term separately.
Social learning theory and the behaviourist approach
Social learning theory and the behaviourist approach are both learning approaches.
Both recognise that behaviour is influenced by experience and the environment. However, there are important differences.
Behaviourist approach | Social learning theory |
Emphasises conditioning | Emphasises observation and modelling |
Reinforcement may be experienced directly | Reinforcement may be observed vicariously |
Focuses strongly on observable behaviour | Includes mediational processes |
Explains learning through associations and consequences | Explains learning through observation, identification and consequences experienced by models |
Social learning theory therefore adds an internal mental stage between environmental experience and behaviour.
This creates a useful link with the study of internal mental processes.
However, social learning theory still retains a focus on learning from the social environment.
Classical conditioning, operant conditioning and social learning theory
The three learning processes can be distinguished clearly.
Learning process | How learning occurs | Key relationship |
Classical conditioning | Through an association between stimuli | Stimulus → response |
Operant conditioning | Through the direct consequences of behaviour | Behaviour → consequence |
Social learning theory | Through observing models and their consequences | Model → observation and mediation → imitation |
Reviewing learning through associations will help you avoid confusing observational learning with conditioning.
Applying social learning theory in an examination
Application questions often describe:
A person observing someone else.
A model receiving a reward.
A person admiring or relating to the model.
A delay between observation and imitation.
A person being unable or unwilling to reproduce a behaviour.
Use the details in the scenario to identify each part of the theory.
A reliable method is:
Identify the model.
Who is being observed?
Identify the observed behaviour.
What does the model do?
Look for identification.
Does the observer relate to, admire or want to be like the model?
Identify the model’s consequence.
Is the model rewarded?
Explain vicarious reinforcement.
How could observing the reward increase imitation?
Apply the mediational processes.
Did the observer notice, remember, have the ability and become motivated?
Identify the imitation.
What behaviour does the observer later reproduce?
⚠️ Use the names and actions from the scenario throughout your explanation. Definitions
alone do not fully apply the theory.
Applying social learning theory across the course
Social learning theory is also applied to behaviour in later parts of AQA A-Level Psychology.
It can be used to explain how people learn gender-related behaviour through observation, modelling and reinforcement.
Learning from models also appears in social learning explanations of anorexia nervosa.
A later lesson will examine how psychological research has been used to investigate the theory through Bandura’s evidence for observational learning.
Common Mistakes ⚠️
Mistake: Using imitation and identification as though they mean the same thing.
Why this is incorrect:Imitation is copying a behaviour. Identification is relating to a model or wanting to be like them.
How to improve:State that identification can make imitation more likely, then describe the specific behaviour that is copied.
Mistake: Describing vicarious reinforcement as a reward given directly to the observer.
Why this is incorrect:In vicarious reinforcement, the model receives the reward. The observer is influenced by watching the model’s experience.
How to improve:Always identify who receives the consequence. If the observer receives it, the reinforcement is direct rather than vicarious.
Mistake: Saying that every observed behaviour will be imitated.
Why this is incorrect:Mediational processes influence whether behaviour is reproduced. The observer must notice and remember the behaviour, be able to perform it and have sufficient motivation.
How to improve:Explain at least one reason why observation may not lead to imitation.
Mistake: Leaving mediational processes out of an explanation of social learning theory.
Why this is incorrect:Social learning theory does not propose an automatic link between observing and copying. Mental processes intervene between the two.
How to improve:Use the sequence: attention, retention, motor reproduction and motivation.
Mistake: Confusing retention with motor reproduction.
Why this is incorrect:Retention concerns remembering the behaviour. Motor reproduction concerns having the ability to perform it.
How to improve:Ask two separate questions: “Can the observer remember it?” and “Can the observer do it?”
Mistake: Explaining social learning theory only through reinforcement.
Why this is incorrect:The theory also includes observation, imitation, identification and mediational processes.
How to improve:Connect reinforcement to the model’s consequence and explain how the observer processes and reproduces the behaviour.
Mistake: Treating social learning theory as identical to operant conditioning.
Why this is incorrect:Operant conditioning focuses on consequences experienced directly by the person performing the behaviour. Social learning theory allows behaviour to be learned by observing a model.
How to improve:Use the phrase “observing another person and their consequences” when
explaining social learning theory.
Mistake: Naming a mediational process without applying it to the scenario.
Why this is incorrect:Writing “retention occurred” does not explain what the observer remembered or how this affected later imitation.
How to improve:Link each process to a specific detail, for example, “Sana retained the sequence of actions and reproduced it the following day.”
Exam-Style Questions ✍️
Question 1
Which one of the following best describes identification?
A. Receiving a reward after performing a behaviour
B. Copying every behaviour that is observed
C. Relating to a model or wanting to be like them
D. Remembering a behaviour demonstrated by a model
[1 mark]
reveal mark scheme and indicative content
Answer: C. Relating to a model or wanting to be like them
Question 2
Define imitation.
[2 marks]
reveal mark scheme and indicative content
Mark scheme
AO1 = 2
2 marks:Â Clear definition referring to observing a model's behaviour and subsequently copying or reproducing that behaviour.
1 mark:Â Limited or partial definition.
Indicative content
A behaviour is first observed in a model.
The observer later reproduces or copies that behaviour.
Example answer
Imitation is copying or reproducing behaviour that has previously been observed in a model.
Question 3
Explain how identification may influence whether an observer imitates a model.
[3 marks]
reveal mark scheme and indicative content
Mark scheme
AO1 = 3
Award 1 mark each for:
Identification occurs when an observer relates to or wants to be like a model.
Identification is more likely when the model is perceived as similar, attractive, successful or high status.
Stronger identification makes the observer more likely to imitate the model's behaviour.
Example answer
Identification occurs when an observer relates to a model or wants to be like them. This may be more likely when the model is similar to the observer or is admired and successful. The more strongly the observer identifies with the model, the more likely they are to imitate the model's behaviour.
Question 4
Distinguish between direct reinforcement and vicarious reinforcement.
[4 marks]
reveal mark scheme and indicative content
Mark scheme
AO1 = 4
Award up to 2 marks for each type of reinforcement, with credit for a clear distinction.
Indicative content
Direct reinforcement
The observer personally performs a behaviour.
The observer themselves receives a rewarding consequence.
The consequence makes the behaviour more likely to occur again.
Vicarious reinforcement
The observer watches another person, the model, receive reinforcement.
Observing the model being rewarded increases the observer's motivation to imitate that behaviour.
The observer does not have to receive the reward themselves.
Example answer
Direct reinforcement occurs when a person performs a behaviour and personally receives a reward, making them more likely to repeat it. Vicarious reinforcement occurs when an observer sees a model being rewarded for a behaviour. The observer may then become more likely to imitate the behaviour even though they have not personally received the reward.
Question 5
Explain the role of two mediational processes in social learning theory.
[4 marks]
reveal mark scheme and indicative content
Mark scheme
AO1 = 4
Award up to 2 marks for each correctly explained mediational process.
Indicative content
Credit any two:
Attention
The observer must notice and attend to the model's behaviour.
Behaviour that is not attended to is unlikely to be learned.
Retention
The observer must remember the behaviour they have seen.
A behaviour may therefore be reproduced some time after observation.
Motor reproduction
The observer must be physically and psychologically capable of reproducing the behaviour.
A learned behaviour will not necessarily be performed if it is beyond the observer's abilities.
Motivation
The observer must have a reason or incentive to reproduce the behaviour.
Expected rewards or observed consequences can affect motivation.
Example answer
One mediational process is attention. The observer must pay sufficient attention to the model's behaviour for it to be learned. Another is retention, meaning the observer must remember the behaviour so that it can later be reproduced.
The four mediational processes commonly used to explain SLT are attention, retention, motor reproduction and motivation. They help explain why people do not automatically copy everything they observe.
Question 6
Amal watches her older cousin prepare carefully for a job interview. Her cousin is later offered the job and is congratulated by the family. Amal admires her cousin and uses the same preparation method before her own interview.
Using social learning theory, explain Amal’s behaviour.
[6 marks]
reveal mark scheme and indicative content
Mark scheme
AO2 = 6
Award credit for accurate application of social learning theory to Amal.
Indicative content
Amal's older cousin acts as a model.
Amal identifies with her cousin because she admires her.
Amal observes the cousin carefully preparing for the interview.
The cousin receives a desirable consequence, being offered the job and congratulated.
Amal observes this reward, producing vicarious reinforcement.
This increases Amal's motivation to reproduce the preparation behaviour.
Amal subsequently imitates the preparation method.
Mediational processes may be applied, for example attention to the cousin's preparation, retention of the method and motivation following the cousin's success.
Example answer
Amal's older cousin acts as a model. Amal identifies with her because she admires her, making imitation more likely. Amal observes the preparation method and sees her cousin receive positive consequences when she gets the job and is congratulated. This is vicarious reinforcement because Amal observes someone else being rewarded. The reward increases Amal's motivation to copy the behaviour. She retains the preparation method and later imitates it before her own interview.
Question 7
A psychologist investigates whether consequences received by a model affect imitation. Participants observe a model complete a puzzle using an unusual sequence of actions.
Condition | Consequence received by the model | Number who later imitate the sequence | Total participants |
A | Model is praised | 24 | 30 |
B | Model receives no response | 15 | 30 |
C | Model is criticised | 6 | 30 |
a)Â Calculate the percentage of participants in Condition A who imitated the model.
Use:
Percentage = number who imitated Ă· total participants Ă— 100
Show your working.
[2 marks]
b)Â Explain how the results support the role of vicarious reinforcement.
[3 marks]
c)Â Suggest one mediational process that might explain why some participants in Condition A did not imitate the model.
[2 marks]
reveal mark scheme and indicative content
a)
Mark scheme
1 mark for correct working.
1 mark for the correct answer, 80%.
Working
Percentage=24Ă·30Ă—100
Answer
80%
b)
Award 1 mark each for:
Imitation is highest when the model is praised, 24 out of 30.
Imitation is lower when the model receives no response, 15 out of 30, and lowest when criticised, 6 out of 30.
This suggests that observing a model receive a rewarding consequence increases the observer's motivation to imitate the behaviour, supporting vicarious reinforcement.
Example answer
The praised model is imitated by 24 participants, compared with 15 when there is no consequence and only 6 when the model is criticised. This supports vicarious reinforcement because seeing the model receive a positive consequence appears to increase the observers' motivation to reproduce the behaviour.
c)
AO2 = 2
1 mark for identifying an appropriate mediational process.
1 mark for applying it to the participants.
Indicative content
Credit any appropriate process.
Attention
Some participants may not have paid sufficient attention to the unusual sequence.
Retention
They may have observed the sequence but failed to remember it accurately.
Motor reproduction
They may have remembered it but lacked the ability to reproduce the sequence.
Motivation
Seeing the model praised may not have provided sufficient incentive for every participant to imitate.
Example answer
Retention may explain this. Some participants may have watched the model but failed to remember the unusual sequence accurately, so they could not reproduce it later even though the model had been praised.
Question 8
Explain social learning theory. Refer to imitation, identification, vicarious reinforcement and mediational processes in your answer.
[8 marks]
reveal mark scheme and indicative content
Mark scheme
Suggested allocation: AO1 = 8
7 to 8 marks:Â Knowledge and understanding of social learning theory is accurate and detailed. Imitation, identification, vicarious reinforcement and mediational processes are explained clearly and integrated effectively. Specialist terminology is used accurately.
5 to 6 marks:Â Knowledge is generally accurate and reasonably detailed. All or most of the required elements are addressed, although some may lack development.
3 to 4 marks:Â Some relevant knowledge is present, but the explanation is incomplete or several required concepts are only briefly described.
1 to 2 marks:Â Very limited relevant knowledge.
0 marks:Â No relevant content.
Indicative content
Basic assumptions
Social learning theory proposes that behaviour can be learned through observing other people, known as models.
Learning can occur without the observer directly experiencing reinforcement.
SLT therefore extends behaviourism by recognising cognitive processes between observation and behaviour.
Imitation
The observer reproduces behaviour demonstrated by a model.
Observing a behaviour does not necessarily mean it will automatically be imitated.
Identification
An observer may identify with a model they relate to or want to be like.
Identification may be more likely with models who are similar, attractive, successful or high status.
Strong identification can increase the likelihood of imitation.
Vicarious reinforcement
Observers learn about the consequences of behaviour by watching what happens to models.
Seeing a model rewarded can increase motivation to imitate.
Seeing a model punished may reduce motivation to imitate.
Mediational processes
Attention:Â whether the observer notices the behaviour.
Retention:Â whether the behaviour is remembered.
Motor reproduction:Â whether the observer is capable of performing it.
Motivation:Â whether the observer has sufficient reason to perform it.
The current AQA specification explicitly names imitation, identification, vicarious reinforcement and mediational processes as required social learning theory content.
Example answer
Social learning theory proposes that behaviour can be learned by observing other people, known as models. An observer may later imitate a model by reproducing the behaviour they have seen. However, people do not automatically imitate every behaviour they observe.
Identification can increase imitation. This occurs when an observer relates to a model or wants to be like them, perhaps because the model is similar, admired or high status. The consequences experienced by the model are also important. Vicarious reinforcement occurs when an observer sees the model rewarded for a behaviour. This can increase the observer's motivation to imitate even though they have not personally received the reward. Observing punishment may have the opposite effect.
Social learning theory also includes four mediational processes. Attention determines whether the observer notices the behaviour, retention determines whether it is remembered, motor reproduction concerns whether the observer is capable of performing it, and motivation determines whether the observer has sufficient reason to imitate it. These cognitive processes explain why observation may result in learning without necessarily resulting in immediate imitation.
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